



o, <\ 

O • v * » * <£. r\ 

% o j* .CW- * C° 

: ,y ov i .'«&ieis** 

\0 *7* * , 

„. c^//////jr > ? <4* « , 

^ .<^/yiy&> * r\ *• 

o. ».,,•’ ^0 ^ ' - 

. 4 ?^ V s ' 

^ vy^ ♦^Cv«Oi e * 

: smMb « 

^ >v ** s% vV 'o• *“ .g^ ^ , 

*’**, ^Oj ^ ^ ( 0* \ ,-j* 


>° ^ ^ 

-- * <jS 

V • 1 * ®r c\ 

• v& 






' i- 0-7 * 

* r\ **U «a *Sfcv\l\V\\^ * iT ^ 

^ t “* r\^ ^ ^- '^vkt 5 ~~* <iV o 

11 oT ... V s "»° <** 



• ‘ S a\ 



^ t ^ JCT c « B S^O ,& V , v i * 

^ ^ rw v“ ^ r-C\\\Vot »1 - 

* %£„ 4 ' 

i < V*> Q > ° ‘ 



tP 0 k£* ^ 

> A* * ( 5 *\i\\v\>v i ** \' 

> ^ <s 

o*o ,<£> 



o 

/ x’^'^f*. ° 

d- *AB)T» . ^ <* 

A v> O *■>...' ,A <\ 

0 V c o * •. ~^o ~iy • 1 " . «“* 

r. . c. 4 -,^w, ° J» ***im£: * 


; *b k 

v ^ ", 

rv A c-/vy/«'- V A •^*. * 

*•!’• A 0 V '*»;»’ , 

. ^ ^ ^ V 

* ■*< 





% <V> ^rv 

** / V 



«>* * 


^ :*>: o 5 ^ v ^SiyBC ^° ^ 

^ ' * »T^‘ ,«* ° A ‘»• •' • ’ a 0 V % 


o (* o 























BY PRACTICE 


BY 

WILLIAM WILLIAMS, B.A. 

AND 

J. c. TRESSLE R, M.A. 

HEAD OF DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH 
NEWTOWN HIGH SCHOOL 
NEW YORK CITY 


3 



D. C. HEATH & CO., PUBLISHERS 


BOSTON 


NEW YORK 


CHICAGO 



Copyright, 1923, 

By D. C. Heath & Co. 

2C3 


♦ 


PRJNTED IN (J S.A. 




APfi 30 23 

© Cl A 7 0 5222 


\ 



PREFACE 


This is, first of all, a practical book — not that it excludes 
theory, but that it gives prominence to practice. As composition is 
both a science and an art, no system of teaching it can be successful 
that does not recognize both of these departments. Young people 
do not acquire facility and correctness of expression merely by 
memorizing rules or by poring over methods of sentential structure. 
Repeated and varied experience in the building of sentences and 
themes is necessary as well. Still, the learning of principles is not 
to be neglected, for although it is not the whole, it is an essential 
part. How then can these two departments of the subject be most 
advantageously presented to the pupil? Every discerning teacher 
must have found that little theory and much practice is by far the 
most effective method of teaching composition. On this maxim 
Composition and Rhetoric by Practice is based, and its purpose is 
to furnish the teacher with the means of carrying into effect the 
plan here indicated. It proceeds on the simple method of laying 
down a few principles at a time, and then illustrating them with 
such number and variety of exercises that the pupil may fully 
master the practical application of these principles, and thereby 
learn not only to speak and write, but also to speak and write 
sincerely, correctly, clearly, and forcefully. 

As composition is best taught by a judicious combination of the 
imitative, inductive, and deductive methods, many models, chiefly 
pupil themes, are introduced to show pupils how to go to work and 
to set reasonable standards of attainment. The analysis of themes 
clarifies the principles of composition and helps pupils to apply 
them. 

Especial emphasis is placed on the establishment of these habits: 

1. Finding or thinking out something to say on a worthwhile 
subject. (The usual composition fault is talking too much and 
saying too little.) 

lii 


IV 


PREFACE 


2. Aiming to entertain, instruct, convince, or persuade a definite 
audience. 

3. Planning before speaking or writing. 

4. Accuracy in articulation, pronunciation, mechanical form, 
punctuation, spelling, capitalization, sentence structure, and the 
use of words. 

5. Self-criticism. 

6. Open-mindedness. 

In many schools arousing in pupils a keen desire to speak and 
write better, developing a language conscience, and securing the ac¬ 
tive cooperation of the pupils in making good English popular and 
desirable outside of the classroom are hah the English problem. 
Hence the starting point in English teaching is conversation, in 
the teaching of which one aim is to make the pupil conscious and 
critical of his own and his playmates’ everyday speech. Perhaps 
the pupils in the application of social pressure will make it uncom¬ 
fortable for the one who shows ignorance or carelessness in his 
conversation. At least fewer pupils will say (or think), “If I speak 
correctly on the playground, the boys make fun of me.” 

As there is no sharp line between topics to talk about and topics 
to write about, most of the compositions may be either oral or 
written. The quantity of theme writing necessary depends upon 
the preparation of the class, the size of the class, and the definite¬ 
ness of the results secured in speech, dictation, and drill exercises. 

The text is divided into two parts, Exercises in Speaking and 
Writing and The Sentence and the Word, because no two teachers 
will wish to present the work in exactly the same order, and every 
teacher will change the order for different classes. Drill on the 
agreement between the subject and the verb may not be necessary 
in one class; the drill on connectives may need especial attention 
with another class. The text is so arranged that the teacher can 
easily find the drill exercises which the class most need at the hour 
and sandwich them between the speeches and themes. With the 
conversation practice the teacher may use the articulation and 
pronunciation exercises for a ten-minute drill each day; and, while 
teaching narration, he may turn to Part II for spelling, punctua¬ 
tion, and grammar practice. Or in Part I he may for excellent 


PREFACE 


V 


reasons decide to teach first Chapter III or Chapter IV. Probably 
there will not be time enough for all the drill and speaking and 
writing projects. In that case the teacher has an opportunity to 
select. 

With few exceptions the terminology of the Joint Committee 
on Grammatical Nomenclature has been used. When the Joint 
Committee name is unnecessarily difficult, it has been placed in 
parentheses after a simpler name. The common rhetorical terms, 
coherence and restrictive, have not been used, because to many, 
perhaps most, high-school pupils they carry no meaning. Arrange¬ 
ment, connectives, and essential are clearer. 

We are grateful to the pupils who have generously provided 
illustrative sentences and compositions, have suggested innumer¬ 
able theme topics, and have written one and a half paragraphs 
of the first chapter and better models for the average secondary- 
school pupil than are to be found in the writings of Kipling and 
Stevenson; to teachers like I. L. Winter, J. A. Winans, C. H. Ward, 
F. B. Robinson, A. M. Hitchcock, C. S. Baldwin, Erastus Palmer, 
and S. S. Curry, who have developed the science and art of teach¬ 
ing speech and writing; and to the following for the permission to 
quote: William Jennings Bryan, Dr. Frank Crane, John David, 
C. G. Leland, the Sun, the Evening Mail, the Globe, the Boston 
Herald, the New York Times, the Youth's Companion, Good House¬ 
keeping, the Ladies' Home Journal, the Outlook, the Red Cross 
Magazine, Popidar Mechanics, Doubleday, Page & Co. (a letter 
written by N. Margaret Campbell), the Century Co., Charles 
Scribner’s Sons, Harper & Brothers, and the Atlantic Monthly 
Press, Inc. A number of the composition topics and sentences 
for correction have been taken from Regents’ examinations. 


CONTENTS 


PART I 

EXERCISES IN SPEAKING AND WRITING 


CHAPTER 

I. Conversation. 1 

II. How to Prepare a Manuscript . 15 

III. Narration . 20 

IV. The Paragraph . ... 42 

V. The Whole Composition . 56 

VI. Explanation. 82 

VII. Extemporaneous Speaking . 97 

VIII. The Letter. 112 

The Business Letter.112 

The Friendly Letter.143 

IX. Description .152 


X. Argument .168 

XI. Publication .197 

The Newspaper.197 

The School Paper.211 

The Class Paper.226 

The Class Book.226 

The Magazine.235 

Advertising.237 

Proof Reading.239 

XII. Dictation and Franklin’s Method .245 

XIII. Reading, Paraphrasing, Recitation, and Decla¬ 

mation .248 

XIV. Verse .264 

vi 

























CONTENTS Vll 

PART II 

THE SENTENCE AND THE WORD 

CHAPTER PAGE 

XV. The Parts of the Sentence.273 

XVI. The Correct and Effective Sentence.289 

Comma Blunder and Period Blunder.289 

Case of Pronouns. . . 1 .292 

Verb and Subject.294 

Pronoun and Antecedent.297 

Compound Personal Pronoun and Relative 

Pronoun.299 

Principal Parts of Verbs.300 

Sit, Set; Lie, Lay; Rise, Raise .301 

Subjunctive Mood.302 

Tense.303 

Shall, Will; Should, Would .306 

Adjectives and Adverbs.308 

Wrong Part of Speech.311 

Syntactical Redundance.312 

Incorrect Omissions.313 

Word Order in Indirect Question.317 

Awkwardness.319 

Unity.320 

Arrangement.323 

Parallel Structure.326 

Connectives.328 

Clearness.331 

Force.333 

Sound.341 

XVII. Capitalization.348 

XVIII. Punctuation.354 

XIX. The Right Word.370 

XX. Articulation, Enunciation, and Pronunciation 392 

XXI. Spelling.417 






























Vlll 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER PAGE 

XXII. Figures of Speech. 427 

Appendix.437 

Voice.437 

Parliamentary Practice.. . 443 

Conjugation.459 

Principal Parts of Verbs.462 

Suggested Marking Symbols.465 

Index.468 










• - 



















COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


PART I —EXERCISES IN SPEAKING 

AND WRITING 

CHAPTER I 

CONVERSATION 

Importance. The average person uses enough words and 
sentences in a week to make a book of two hundred fifty 
pages. In fifty years this conversation would make a library 
of two thousand six hundred volumes. Although most con¬ 
versation is not printed, it is heard and has an effect on both 
speaker and hearer. As a person is judged by the company 
he keeps, so he is judged by the English he speaks. Ex- 
President Eliot of Harvard University says, “1 recognize 
but one mental acquisition as an essential part of the edu¬ 
cation of a lady or gentleman; namely, an accurate and 
refined use of the mother-tongue. ” 

You have doubtless at some time found yourself in a 
group of strangers, perhaps at a party, and felt embarrassed 
and tongue-tied. The silence was deadly. Didn’t you strive 
frantically to think of something to say? Every idea you 
thought you possessed had fled, and you could only gasp, 
“Isn’t it hot?” And then some one said, “Oh, yes,” very 
quickly and finally. After that the silence set in worse than 
before. Perhaps it is not often so bad as that, but we have 
all had experiences of that kind. How we admire the person 
who can always find the right topic to set all the group 

i 


2 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


talking, the person who always knows something really 
interesting to say. Such a person we say is a charming 
conversationalist. 

Dollar-and-cent value of good speech. Good speech is 
valuable to the boy or girl who wishes to earn money. 
Next to personal appearance the world notices one’s power 
to converse. When a boy applies for a position, the em¬ 
ployer must form his estimate of the applicant from his 
appearance, his manners, and his speech. If the boy wears 
a soiled collar and unshined shoes, if he sits while girls 
stand, if he lounges in his chair or stands lazily, if he speaks 
in harsh tones, with “He clone,” “I seen,” “He don’t,” 
“Wadyetink?” and the like in his conversation, the employer 
will think him careless, slipshod, and ignorant. 

Social value. Speech is valuable also in the social world. 
A young woman may adorn herself with five hundred 
dollars’ worth of fine raiment; but, if, when she opens her 
mouth, “Javvagootim?” “Ain’t that just fierce?” “Djeet 
yer lunch yit?” or ‘‘Ancha hungry?” bursts forth, she is 
socially undone. 

Improvement in English. Conversation is the best Eng¬ 
lish training ground because the average person talks 
approximately one hundred times as much as he writes and 
speaks in public, and his conversation habits carry over 
into his writing and public speaking. Hence conversation 
has about a hundred times as much influence on one’s 
habitual use of English as writing and public speaking 
combined have. Some pupils think that they can talk un¬ 
grammatical, carelessly articulated dialect at home, in the 
lunchroom, and on the baseball field, and speak good English 
when talking to a teacher or applying for a job. As a result, 
they never learn to speak English like educated Americans. 
Samuel Johnson said that he acquired the habit of imparting 
whatever he knew in the most forcible language because he 
early laid down the rule to do his best on every occasion 


CONVERSATION 


3 


and in every company and never to permit any careless 
expression to escape him. Good English is like good man¬ 
ners — a habit. Get the habit. 

Small talk. Conversation need not always have 
weighty subject matter. As people converse most fre¬ 
quently for pleasure, scholarship and wisdom are not so 
necessary as tact, humor, and interest. Lincoln and Shake¬ 
speare knew how to mix the humorous and the serious, the 
jocular and the tragic, sense and nonsense. 

Loudness and distinctness. In conversation suit your 
voice to the conditions. Some people talk at all times as if 
they were in a boiler factory; others, while riding on the 
trolley or subway, talk as if they were in a sickroom. The 
happy medium under normal conditions is neither a shout 
nor a whisper, but speech loud and distinct enough to be 
easily understood. 

The good listener. Some people imagine that the words 
which fall from their lips are golden but that what others 
say is of little account. Conversation is not a lecture or 
soliloquy but a give and take. Cowper says, “We should 
try to keep conversation like a ball bandied to and fro from 
one to another, rather than seize it all to ourselves, and 
drive it before us like a football.” 

The good listener gains worth-while information every 
day. Only a prig thinks himself too wise to learn from un¬ 
educated people. The blacksmith, the farmer, the miller, 
the plumber, the carpenter, and the electrician practice arts 
about which the average person knows little or nothing. 
Roosevelt once said, “It tires me to talk to rich men. You 
expect a man of millions, the head of a great industry, to 
be a man worth hearing; but, as a rule, they don’t know 
anything outside of their own businesses.” He preferred to 
talk with a ranchman, boxer, guide, cowboy, actor, police 
reporter, or wolf-killer who had studied life in his own way 
and had experience and ideas worth hearing. 



4 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


The chatterer often discourages those who have some¬ 
thing to say. During the World War the New York Times 
published an account of an English soldier’s furlough. 
When the soldier returned to the firing line, a comrade 
asked him whether his wife had been thrilled by the ac¬ 
count of his experiences. 

“I didn’t tell her,” he replied. 

“Didn’t tell her; why?” broke in his pal. 

“I didn’t get a chance; she was so busy tellin’ me all the news I 
about Mrs. Bally’s cat killin’ Mrs. Smith’s bird, and Mrs. Cramp’s 
sister’s new dress, and how Jimmy Murphy’s dog chewed up Annie 
Allen’s doll, an’ — all such things.” 

Something to say. On the contrary, don’t throw the 
whole burden of the conversation upon the others in the 
group. Have you ever entertained a caller who politely 
answered yes or no to questions about his brother in South 
America, a new book, the Airedale pup, the basketball 
game, and the garden, and then relapsed into a polite 
silence? How you rejoiced when he said good-by! An 
occasional lull in the conversation is natural and restful, 
but repeated lengthy silences indicate barrenness of ideas 
or unsociability. The person who has nothing to say is 
considered sick, dull, shy, or unsociable. 

If in conversation you do not have anything to contribute, 
read the newspaper, magazines, and books; talk with 
thoughtful people; learn to play games and to do various 
kinds of useful work; enjoy the best plays, concerts, and 
moving pictures; and keep your eyes and ears open for a 
laughable happening. Do, read, see. An apt anecdote or 
well-told experience is always entertaining. But the bore 
who tells stale or pointless jokes, misses the point of his 
jokes, or tells again and again the same experience or 
anecdote is shunned. 





CONVERSATION 


5 


PRACTICE 

Be ready to say something entertaining, informing, or convincing 
on the following topics. In class conversation turn about in your 
seat, if necessary, to face the majority of the class, and speak so 
distinctly that the pupil farthest from you will easily understand 
every word. 

1. How important is conversation in our social life? in business? 
in politics? in a profession? 

2. Which is most valuable, ability in conversation, in speaking 
to an audience, in letter writing, or in essay writing? Why? 

3. How does a person’s conversation affect his public speaking 
and his writing? 

4. Should we habitually use slang in conversation? Why? 

5. Many people consider conversation a lost art. If so, is the 
art worth reviving? Why? 

6. What kind of pictures do you like? plays? books? music? 
Why? 

7. What does our community need most? 

8. What really worth-while moving picture have you seen 
recently? 

9. What services should a pupil perform for his school? 

10. The number of preventable deaths in this country each 
year is 630,000. How may this loss of life be reduced? 

11. It has been estimated that seventy men out of a hundred 
are in the wrong job. How should a pupil decide on a job, business, 
or profession? When? Should he accept the advice of his parents 
or a vocational counselor? 

12. What kinds of law-breaking is it the duty of a citizen to 
prevent or report: burglary, spitting on the floor, speeding, cruelty 
to animals? Why? 

13. In school is it right to tattle? Is it right to shield of¬ 
fenders? 

Topics. Matthew Arnold, when asked his favorite topic 
of conversation, said, “That in which my companion is 
most interested/’ When you begin to talk with a stranger, 
it is well to employ “feelers” to arrive at the best topic. 



6 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


If a stranger’s face brightens at the mention of baseball, the 
theater, the recent election, Alpine scenery, or automobiles, 
you have probably hit upon a subject that he will enjoy 
talking about. The common interest may be acquaintances, 
school, business, books, places of residence, or news of the 
day. Don’t be satisfied with the weather as a topic. 

EXERCISE 

How do you decide on topics for conversationf Which of the 
following topics do you like bestf 

Happenings to oneself, happenings to others, criticism of a 
lecture or play, school, work, the welfare of the community, friends, 
anecdotes, current events, gossip, parties, books, stories, maga¬ 
zines, moving pictures, travel, vacation, games, gardens, athletics, 
politics, animals, thoughts, automobiles, picnics, new clothes, 
weather, things to eat. 

What other topics for conversation are there? 

Pet word. Watch for your pet expression. It may be 
* awfully, very , funny, great, splendid, get, you know, listen, 
grand, nice, you see, fine, fierce, lovely, they say, gorgeous, 
then, now, and, /, so, well, why, or just an ur-r-r when you stop 
to think. Form the habit of hearing your voice and words 
and criticizing your speech as you criticize your writing. 

Good manners in conversation. Dean Swift defined man¬ 
ners as the art of putting at ease the people with whom we 
converse. Good manners require the avoiding of a topic 
that might make somebody in the group unhappy, unless 
there is good reason for telling plain, unpleasant truths. 
To parade one’s wealth, learning, or travel, or discuss 
clothes, automobiles, or servants for the purpose of mak¬ 
ing somebody uncomfortable is not an evidence of culture 
or refinement. 

The courteous talker does not meet argument with abuse 
or shout his opinions. He does not try to force his hearers 
to agree with him. On the contrary, he is ready to change 


CONVERSATION 


7 


his opinion when convinced of error. A person afflicted 
with self-conceit, whether old or young, is impatient of the 
opinions and reasons of others and hence is not able to 
influence others. 

Moreover the talker who has good manners looks in the 
eye the person with whom he is talking, does not change the 
subject abruptly if the group are interested in the topic 
under discussion, and avoids unnecessary interruptions. 
Pointless interruptions show the speaker that his companion 
is not interested. He takes the hint and stops talking. 

PRACTICE 

Select a student chairman and prepare to discuss the latest num¬ 
ber of the Literary Digest , Independent , Outlook , Review of Reviews , 
or another magazine. The chairman by question or statement 
begins the discussion and changes the topic when advisable. The 
teacher in a rear seat takes notes for a criticism at the end of the 
period. 

Associates. Conversation is like the measles or chicken- 
pox — contagious. If your friends are ungrammatical, vul¬ 
gar, coarse, or profane, it will be hard for you to become a 
clean, forceful speaker. Associate with a good conversa¬ 
tionalist if you would speak well. 

Good nature. Conversation makes for us fast friends or 
bitter enemies and also has an effect upon our disposition and 
moods. If an angry person speaks calmly, his anger gradu¬ 
ally dies away; if he utters biting, fiery words, his anger 
grows and soon masters him. The person who makes an 
effort to speak cheerfully when tempted to snarl, whine, or 
growl, will soon feel better and speak cheerfully without 
an effort. Keep in mind the telephone slogan, “The voice 
with the smile wins.” 

Silence. Nobody ever regretted that he had enough 
self-control to keep back the unkind word or malicious 
gossip that was on his lips. Will Carleton says, 






8 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


Boys flying kites haul in their white-winged birds; 

You can’t do that way when you’re flying words. 

“Careful with fire,” is good advice we know; 

“Careful with words,” is ten times doubly so. 

Thoughts unexpressed may sometimes fall back dead, 

But God himself can’t kill them once they are said! 

Contradiction. There is nothing to be gained by clash¬ 
ing of opinions and needless contradiction. A good talker 
avoids an air of authority or finality in presenting his opin¬ 
ions. Even when fairness requires the correction of a 
misstatement or an inaccuracy, he avoids wounding the 
feelings of the one who made the mistake. People are 
sensitive about their blunders and faults. As an intellectual 
exercise argument has few equals. Avoid, however, the habit 
in serious conversation of taking the opposite side and 
wasting words in argument. Cardinal Newman says, “The 
true gentleman in like manner carefully avoids whatever 
may cause a jar or a jolt in the mind of those with whom 
he is cast — all clashing of opinion or collision of feeling, 
all restraint or suspicion or gloom or resentment, his great 
concern being to make every one at ease and at home.” 

Telephone conversation. The New York City Telephone 
Directory gives these suggestions: 

1. Speak directly into the mouthpiece with your lips close to it. 

2. Speak distinctly and deliberately. 

3. If the number is not found in the directory, call “Information.” 

4. Give numbers to the operator as follows: 

John 1253 “John, one-two-five-three”; 

Main 0125-J “Main, oh-one-two-five-J”; 

Broad 4800 “Broad, four-eight-hundred”; 

Worth 5000 “Worth, five-thousand.” 

5. If you are calling from a party line, give your letter after 
calling as above: “This is W calling.” 

6. After giving the number, listen to the operator as she repeats it. 
If she repeats the number correctly, say “Yes ” or “Right.” If she 
does not repeat the number correctly, say “No” and give the number 
again. 









10 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


7. To call back the operator, move the receiver up and down 
slowly. 

When the connection has been made, the conversation 
begins as follows: 


Example 1 

John Roberts of the Roberts Numbering Machine Company has 
called John Hof man of the Hofrnan and Banta Garage. 

Mr. Hof man (taking down the receiver when his telephone bell 
rings): Hofrnan and Banta Garage, Mr. Hofrnan speaking. 

Mr. Roberts: This is the Roberts Numbering Machine Com¬ 
pany, Mr. Roberts at the telephone. What are your rates for 
storage of a Buick touring car? 

Example 2 

Theodore Ward wishes to order a steamer trunk from John 
Wanamaker. 

Wanamaker switchboard operator (answering Mr. Ward’s call): 
John Wanamaker. 

Mr. Ward: The trunk department, please. 

Switchboard operator: Hold the wire, please. 

Trunk clerk: Trunk department. 

Mr. Ward: This is Theodore Ward of 165 Broadway. Please 
send me one of the steamer trunks that you advertised in today’s 
Times for $28.49 and charge to my account. 

Other points to keep in mind in telephone conversation 
are: 

1. Don’t shout. 

2. Don’t tell secrets. 

3. Be just as courteous with Central and the person at the 
other end of the wire as you are in face-to-face conversation. 
It is easy to quarrel over the telephone because the people talking 
do not see each other. 

4. Answer the telephone promptly. Delay means added labor 
for Central and wasted time for the person calling. 


CONVERSATION 


11 


5. At the end of the conversation say “Good-by” and hang 
up the receiver — don’t bang it on the hook. 

6. Don’t carry on a long conversation unless the business is 
important. 

7. Have a pad and pencil at hand for notes. 

8. Talk naturally. Don’t put on an artificial manner for tele¬ 
phone conversation. See in imagination the person with whom 
you are talking and note his changes of facial expression. 

PRACTICE 

1. Let one pupil represent the employment agent of John 
Wanamaker and another a boy or girl who has come in response 
to the advertisement: Wanted — bright, energetic, trustworthy, 
accurate high-school graduates as salesmen. Capable and reliable 
boys and girls advance rapidly. Many buyers and department 
heads earn more than $5,000 a year. 

2. M is the Registrar of Columbia University, and N inquires 
about admission, expenses, opportunities to earn money, and 
courses. Perhaps N doesn’t understand what is meant in the cata¬ 
log by general tests for admission. 

3. Dramatize a sale at the book, necktie, or hat counter, or in 
the boys’ or girls’ suit department. 

4. Let C inquire the way to the post office, railroad station, 
bank, moving-picture theater, library, a church, or another town 
or city. D’s answer should be correct, clear, and courteous. 

5. Reproduce and discuss a conversation you have heard. 

6. Let two or more pupils read a conversation from a short 
story or novel. Discuss the conversational ability of the char¬ 
acters. 

7. A is a clerk in the sporting-goods department. B wishes to 
buy a tennis racket, pair of skates, baseball glove, or camera that 
the firm does not carry. A tries to sell the article in stock. 

8. A wishes to “look at” a vacuum cleaner, bookcase, electric 
washing machine, dishwasher, electric stove, gas stove, grapho- 
phone, fireless cooker, or kitchen cabinet. B explains the merits 
of the article and tries to make a sale. 

9. A is an agent for a new book, a recent invention, a household 
article, life insurance, or stock in a corporation that is being or- 


( 


12 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 

ganized. He finds B busy and must present his case briefly and 
attractively. 

10. A tries to persuade B to vote for C as president of the 
student organization or athletic association. 

11. A and B talk over the recent game, debate, speaking con¬ 
test, or play. 

12. A asks permission of the principal or the program committee 
to take an additional subject or to discontinue a subject. 

13. A and B discuss the value of a school subject: history, 
geometry, bookkeeping, Latin, physical training, Spanish, general 
science. 

14. A tries to secure from a grocer, druggist, jeweler, coal 
dealer, or music teacher an advertisement for the school paper. 

15. A asks the principal’s permission to hold a school enter¬ 
tainment or party or to organize a club. 

16. Let Mr. C introduce Mr. D to Mr. E and Mr. F. Carry on 
the conversation. In the course of a brief conversation each par¬ 
ticipant will use the names of the others to show that he is interested 
in the people he has just met and has understood their names. 

17. In reply to a newspaper advertisement H applies for a 
position; I is office boy or stenographer; and J is the employer. 

18. X, who is selling tickets for the annual school play, calls on 
Y, the owner of a hardware store two blocks from the school. 

19. E and F, who have formed a partnership to earn money on 
Saturdays by washing windows, beating rugs, mowing grass, and 
shoveling snow, call on Mrs. G. 

GROUP PRACTICE 

(The class may be divided into groups of five or six pupils each 
for the informal talks. The leader of each group may be called 
the host or hostess. After three or five minutes some one in the 
group may be asked to tell the class what he has learned from the 
conversation or to point out the best and worst about the conver¬ 
sation he has heard.) 

The leader will start the game, hut you must be ready to catch the 
ball when it comes to you and pass it along. Get into the game. If 
your anecdote, experience, illustration, or explanation is long or 
pointless, you will have a f umble or a muff scored against you. 


CONVERSATION 


13 


1. How can we become good talkers? 

2. Select a correct, forceful, and entertaining talker whom you 
know. Explain why his conversation is forceful and entertaining. 

3. How do 3mu form a first impression of a person? 

4. What is the relation between conversation and friendship? 

5. What have you been reading? 

6. What is a gentleman? Illustrate. 

7. Samuel Johnson says, “A man should be careful never to 
tell tales of himself to his own disadvantage. People may be 
amused and laugh at the time, but they will be remembered and 
brought out against him upon some subsequent occasion.” Is this 
a good conversation rule? Why? 

8. Professor Lounsbury of Yale University says, “ Profanity is a 
brain test. To a very great extent the practice of swearing is 
specially characteristic of a rude and imperfect civilization. It is 
safe to say in general that a man’s intellectual development is 
largely determined by the extent of his indulgence in profanity.” 
Professor Lounsbury adds that exceptions are the result of early 
training or association. Are ignorant people more profane than 
intelligent? Why? What relation exists between profanity and 
size of vocabulary? 

9. One authority estimates that the average man is only twenty- 
five per cent efficient. What does the statement mean? Does it 
apply to high-school pupils? How? 

10. Samuel Johnson says, “Questioning is not the mode of 
conversation among gentlemen. It is particularly wrong to ques¬ 
tion a man concerning himself.” Do you agree with Johnson? 
Why? 

11. Good conversation is sincere, honest, fluent, —. Supply as 
many appropriate adjectives as you can. 

12. Poor conversation may be loud, profane, sarcastic, —. 
Supply adjectives. 

13. One of the big insurance companies says, “Out of one 
hundred average healthy men at twenty-five, thirty-six of them 
will be dead before they reach sixty-five, five will be wealthy, five 
will still be supporting themselves by work, and fifty-four, or 
eighty-four per cent of those still alive, will be dependent upon 
friends, relatives, or charity.” Explain why so few people save 


14 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


enough for their support in old age. Or explain how to avoid being 
a dependent at sixty-five. 

14. Ex-President Wilson said in a speech in Rome, “The only 
use of an obstacle is to be overcome.” Illustrate. 

15. Dr. Hibben, president of Princeton University, said, “The 
war has shown us that men are capable of more work than was 
ever dreamed of. There should be no slacking of education. The 
public will not stand for young men in college without a serious 
purpose, and I wish to state right now that Princeton University 
will not stand for it.” What boys and girls should be permitted 
to enter college and remain in college? What about high school? 

16. Discuss conversationalists you know. Perhaps you know a 
bore who is always riding his hobby, a mother who talks to her 
children as if they were deaf, a woman who is in a great hurry but 
talks on, a man who talks about everything except the topic under 
discussion, a mumbler whom few can understand, a boy or girl 
who overworks a pet expression, a drawling, sleepy talker, or a 
stimulating, entertaining conversationalist. Picture to the class 
vividly and accurately the person chosen. 


CHAPTER II 

HOW TO PREPARE A MANUSCRIPT 


Letters and compositions, like people, are judged some¬ 
what by their appearance. No one enjoys deciphering a 
slovenly or illegible letter. Hence apply these rules until 
they become habits: 

1. Use black or blue-black ink and white paper about 
8 x 10J inches in size. 

2. Leave a margin of one inch at the left. Keep the 
margin even. At the right leave a very narrow margin 
and avoid a long gap except at the end of a paragraph. 

3. Indent the first word of each paragraph about an 
inch. 

4. At the end of the line divide a word only between 
syllables. Place the hyphen at the end of the line. Avoid, 
if possible, the division of a short word and any division 
like e-vent and feather-y, in which only one letter either 
precedes or follows the hyphen. 

5. Center the title on the line and capitalize the first 
word and all important words. Articles, prepositions, and 
conjunctions are not capitalized. Use no punctuation 
mark after the title unless a question mark or exclamation 
point is needed. 

6. Leave a blank line or space between the title and the 
composition. 

7. Follow your teacher’s instructions concerning name, 
date, class, composition number, and folding. Perhaps 
your teacher will ask you to hand in compositions unfolded, 
to put at the top of the page the number of the composition, 

15 


16 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


\ 


and to write one and a half inches from the top your name 
and the date on which the exercise is due; as, 

James Furlong E4A2 January 8 , 1923 


Leave a blank line or space between this heading and the 
title or outline. 

8. Number the pages if the composition is more than 
a page long. 

9. As every composition is planned, written rapidly on 

scratch paper, revised slowly and thoroughly, and then 

copied neatly, the completed manuscript should show no 

erasures or canceled or inserted words. On a test cancel 

words by drawing parallel lines through them. Insert 

words by using a caret and writing the words above the 

line; as, , . 

enclosing them 

Do not cancel words by in parentheses. 

A 


Legibility 

1. Leave a space between words and double space 
between sentences. 

2. Connect the letters of a word. 

3. Don’t let the loop of /, g, j, y, q , z, b, h, l, or k extend 
so far as to cut a word in the line above or below. 

4. Dot i and j above the letters and cross t with a short 
horizontal line. Make t a stroke, not a loop. 

5. Form all letters. Differentiate a and o, u and w, 
h and k, rr and u, u and n, b and l, c and e, v and r. A rather 
heavy line is not a satisfactory l, s, a, o, or e. Always open 
these letters and the loops of h, k, b, and /. 


EXERCISES 

. !• Why are specimens 3, 4, and 5 hard to read? Point out all 
violations of the five rules. 

2. Explain briefly and clearly something of interest that you 
learned yesterday in history, Latin, physics, chemistry, mathe- 


HOW TO PREPARE A MANUSCRIPT 


17 


matics, or another subject. After writing the composition, examine 
your penmanship to see whether it is easy to read. Then copy the 
composition, applying carefully the five legibility rules and the 
seven rules for good form. Hand in both copies. 

3. Practice forming the letters mentioned in the rules. 

Not enough Space between Words and Lines 








Better Spacing 

~\jo ^>-c_ 


Many Letters Not Formed 




* -/S S/Y 'Trt'fizS 


Better 








18 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


afcsu^ J&d Xi/U. dP^n/ XJb • ^-diruT XAa 

/y^urUA^X<Zuu. XJvt- -tcnlsZ. *wuT 

tts&v XJ[e-, -dumd Ujrf&vut XJLt ^szzo' ^sajul*/ , 

cljlrvlxsuj jAr&iAJi' ~?V2/ Co-Us£e{ 

■ulcl ^ JlsyiXi^td., <n/ / ')vo / dt 


^Asrm 


^J-O-yAA /CTau^ s^LrtJZa/ 

^j-e~C*<3LA*4ijes sd^l-£s<-y' 

~^tdd*ULs , ^a^Si^AS^' /vCts yiA rtrdb *£<*-tsL 

^r^eSLsfca^AJ £jt<T^ls /fct> 

s'&'V /XJUx^d^ /x«_tLsu.rz^cL^tJlAS, \JYsaXMMd£t^ 



/^7Y/4^ /l+J 


• ^1*tyffiZct'^tu^XXoyxA^t^i /d 
'%M/bjLc, J ^£ce/ 

) ' Axs 


y ^C'/s<3/0tfft?KJZSid,. {da / /ji , jdnj-w-sr^c*sda~£ 

dvjpd" 



% \ 






HOW TO PREPARE A MANUSCRIPT 


19 




rv-v>N^»- -cw 






Xxro^N^ 


''\^$v>X. A-v»Xj"T>^vV> '^\JL ^vTnJTy^^ '^XJV*’> 

• = *_^»j\' oA34^~S~o ^3*- aIX. ^-yv_ "^©-cV* i3"Y 


CxX^vbX 

jlkX -vo cxrv>. 

C-rvJL«wVvvj_^ ^i-v-vO^. ^r« 7 C- /|]-UMX>-\ Vvv .fc^vSj ^V. 

> O - 0 -^*_»-^ -0U? ^—*-?0 > ?*=^-$ /VrC--<^lCfci\A-Jry> f *5 r^s,.Airjt. ^oa4. <X 



CHAPTER III 
NARRATION 

Narration presents a succession of events in the order of 
time or with special reference to time. The aim of the 
narrative writer should be to make the reader an eye¬ 
witness, as it were, of the events narrated. 

Kinds of narratives. A narrative may be a series of 
disconnected happenings, an incident carefully told, or a 
story with a plot. When you are away from home, Father 
and Mother will enjoy a letter that sounds like a brief 
diary, because they are keenly interested in everything 
you do. Such disconnected subject matter, however, is 
not suitable for school composition, because composition 
is putting together connected ideas. 

m 

Reproduction 

Everybody wishes to know how to tell accurately and 
entertainingly what he has read or heard. When you 
reproduce Service’s Hard-luck Henry, Noyes’s The High¬ 
wayman, or Poe’s The Gold Bug, don’t mix something of 
your own with what Service, Noyes, or Poe wrote. A 
reproduction either interests or bores. To interest, select 
a good story and then tell it in a wide-awake, enthusiastic 
manner. You will do better if you select a story that the 
pupils do not know and that they ought to know. Practice 
on your family at the dinner table. If you cannot interest 
them, choose another story or improve your telling. 

A good story-teller is somewhat of an actor. Change 
the voice, manner, and facial and bodily expression to 

20 

















22 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


represent the characters. If your characters are a man and 
a woman, use deeper tones and less inflection for the man. 

PRACTICE 

Reproduce orally one of the following. Put life and enthusiasm 
into your story-telling. 

1. A myth. 2. An anecdote. 3. A narrative poem. 4. An 
animal story. 5. An Old Testament story. 6. A movie story. 
7. An Indian legend. 8. A ghost story. 9. A historical incident. 
10. A humorous incident from a supplementary book. 11. An 
incident in words of a character not the narrator in the original: 
Theodore Roosevelt’s account of his acquaintance with Jacob A. 
Riis, The Legend of Sleepy Hollow as told by Katrina, Ichabod, 
or Brom Bones, Dolly Winthrop’s account of Silas Marner and 
his life, Eppie’s refusal told by Silas, Ben Gunn’s story of his life 
on Treasure Island, Gratiano’s account of Jessica’s life and 
elopement. 12. An incident in the life of Lincoln, Washington, 
Roosevelt, Edison, or another great American. 

Outlining the story will help you to remember it and 
tell the incidents in order. 

Outline of the Combat from Scott’s Talisman 
I. Time, place, and persons. 

A. The Third Crusade. 

B. The Diamond of the Desert. 

C. Sir Kenneth and Conrad. 

II. The preparations. 

A. Arming. 

B. The herald’s proclamation. 

C. Taking positions. 

D. The invocation. 

III. The combat proper. 

A. The signal. 

B. The start. • 


NARRATION 


23 


C. In career. 

D. The shock at meeting. 

E. Its results. 

IV. The effect in settling the dispute. 

PRACTICE 

Outline a story from one of the following books and prepare to 
reproduce it entertainingly in four minutes. Don’t hesitate or flounder . 
Keep the story moving steadily and rapidly. 

Aldrich, Thomas B.: Two Bites at a Cherry 
Allen, James Lane: Kentucky Cardinal 
Andrews, Mary: Perfect Tribute 
Bacon (Daskam), Josephine D.: Smith College Stories 
Davis, Richard Harding: Van Bibber and Others, Gallagher and 
Other Stories 

de la Ramee, Louise (Ouida): The Nuremberg Stove, The Dog of 
Flanders 

Dickens, Charles: Christmas Stories 

Doyle, Arthur Conan: Adventures of Sherlock Holmes 

Freeman, Mary Wilkins: A New England Nun, A Humble Romance 

Grahame, Kenneth: The Golden Age, Dream Days 

Harte, Bret: The Luck of Roaring Camp 

Hawthorne, Nathaniel: Twice Told Tales, Wonder Book, Tanglewood 
Tales 

Henry, O. (Sidney Porter): The Four Million, The Voice of the City, 
The Trimmed Lamp 
Kelly, Myra: Little Citizens 

Kipling, Rudyard: The Jungle Book, The Second Jungle Book, Actions 
and Reactions, The Day’s Work 
Poe, Edgar Allan: Prose Tales 

Seton, Ernest Thompson: Wild Animals I Have Known, Lives of the 
Hunted 

Stevenson, Robert Louis: The Bottle Imp, Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde, 
The Merry Men, New Arabian Nights 
Stockton, Frank: The Lady or the Tigerf 
Tarbell, Ida M.: He Knew Lincoln 
Tarkington, Booth: Monsieur Beaucaire 
Taylor, Arthur Russell: Mr. Squem. and Some Male Triangles 
Williams, J. L.: Princeton Stories 


24 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


PRACTICE 

Reproduce vividly and earnestly a dramatic or exciting 
moment in a novel, a moving picture, a short story, or a 
play. Use the exact words of the speakers. 

How to Narrate 

1. Try to arouse interest or excite curiosity when you 
begin the story and to keep the hearers or readers in sus¬ 
pense till you near the end. Waste no time in getting the 
story under way. The introduction commonly answers 
the questions: Who? When? Where? What? 

2. Have a point , exciting moment, or climax in the narra¬ 
tive, and make it stand out. 

3. Conclude briefly. Often a conclusion is not needed. 

4. Use the exact words of the characters. Indirect dis¬ 
course is tiresome. Avoid, however, repeating he said. 
Either omit the introducing words or substitute such 
expressions as he replied, he answered, he whispered, he 
shrieked, he blurted out. 

5. Picture the characters and places and let the reader 
know the feelings of the characters. Use color and sound 
words. Place the events before the reader as he would 
have seen them had he been present. 

6. Make the story move swiftly. Boil down. Cross out 
words, phrases, and sentences not necessary to picture 
the setting and actors, characterize the actors, or advance 
the action. Omit the obvious and unnecessary. Readers 
expect something to happen. If you are writing on Landing 
a Big Fish, do not tell that you got up, washed your face, 
combed your hair, and ate breakfast. Tell very briefly 
about riding to the lake, procuring bait, hiring a boat, and 
rowing to the east end of the lake unless something unusual 
happened. When you reach the climax, however, tell 
every detail. 


NARRATION 25 

7. Make use of contrast. Black is blackest when placed 
beside white. 

8. Arrange the events in their order of occurrence. When 
there are several streams of events of nearly equal impor¬ 
tance, the ordinary method is to carry one up to a certain 
point, and then return to bring up the others, one by one, 
to the same time. 

9. The 'paragraphs should, as far as possible, deal each 
with a separate part of the narrative. 

10. Use the language of lively conversation, not of scholarly 

books. 


A Bear Story 1 

Several years ago I was camping out in Maine one March, in a 
lumberman’s shack. A few days before I came two boys in a village 
near by decided to go into the woods hunting, with a muzzle-loading 
shotgun and a long stick between them. One boy was ten years old, 
while the other was a patriarch of twelve. On a hillside under a 
great bush they noticed a small hole which seemed to have melted 
through the snow, and which had a gamy savor that made them 
suspect a coon. The boy with the stick poked it in as far as possible 
until he felt something soft. 

“I think there’s something here,” he remarked, poking with all his 

might. 

He was quite right. The next moment the whole bank of frozen 
snow suddenly caved out, and there stood a cross and hungry bear, 
prodded out of his winter sleep by that stick. The boys were up 
against a bad proposition. The snow was too deep for running, and 
when it came to climbing — that was Mr. Bear’s pet specialty. So 
they did the only thing left for them to do: they waited. The little 
one with the stick got behind the big one with the gun, which weapon 
wavered unsteadily. 

“Now, don’t you miss,” he said, “’cause this stick ain’t very 

sharp.” 

Sometimes an attacking bear will run at a man like a biting dog. 
More often it rises on its haunches and depends on the smashing 
blows of its mighty arms and steel-shod paws. So it happened in 

1 From Samuel Scoville’s Everyday Adventures by permission of the 

Atlantic Monthly Press, Boston. 


26 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


this case. Just before the bear reached the boys, he lifted his head 
and started to rise. The first boy, not six feet away, aimed at the 
white spot which most black bears have under their chin, and pulled 
the trigger. At that close range the heavy charge of number six 
shot crashed through the animal’s throat, making a single round 
hole like a big bullet, cutting the jugular vein, and piercing the neck 
vertebrae beyond. The great beast fell forward with hardly a 
struggle, so close to the boys that its blood splashed on their rubber 
boots. They got ten dollars for the skin and ten dollars for the 
bounty, and about one million dollars’ worth of glory. 

PRACTICE 

Using the bear story as a model, narrate an unusual or exciting 
happening that a member of your family, Grandfather or Grand¬ 
mother, for example, or some one else has told you about. Perhaps 
these topics will remind you of a true story you have heard: World 
War, land travel, ocean travel, camping, cooking, exploring, 
tramping, accident, mistaken identity, surprise, rival, escape, 
amateur acting, skating, hunting, fishing, baseball, running, 
swimming, mountain climbing, “roughing it,” earlier days in our 
city or town, learning to fly, a rare chance, everyday heroism. 

Apply rules 2, 3, 4, 6, and 8. 

An Experience 

Criticism of Three School Themes 

1. Is curiosity excited or interest aroused in each? How? 
What use of suspense is there? Does the introduction answer 
definitely the questions: Who? When? Where? What? 

2. Has each a climax? What? 

3. How long is the conclusion of each? 

4. What use is made of direct discourse? 

5. Have the writers pictured the actors or places of the inci¬ 
dents? What pictures do you get from the themes? 

6. What needless details are introduced or unnecessary words 
used? 

7. What use, if any, is made of contrast? 

8. How are events arranged? 


NARRATION 27 

9. Does each paragraph deal with a separate part of the nar¬ 
rative? Prove. 

10. Select well-chosen words and well-written phrases and 
sentences. 

11. What is the chief merit and the worst defect of each? 

1. Fried Frogs’ Eggs 

Behind our house at Lake Placid stretched a small ridge, on the 
other side of which was a large basin-like hollow which brother Phil 
and I knew as the Old Pond. Here, when the snow melted, and the 
pond became a reality, came innumerable frogs and toads to sing 
Welcome, Sweet Springtime. On the edge of the Old Pond we had 
built a sturdy pioneer’s cabin and an outdoor fireplace, in which we 
were sometimes allowed to roast potatoes and make cornmeal mush. 

One spring day, when I was about eight years old, Phil watched 
Mother fry some eggs. Suddenly a beautiful expression, which always 
meant mischief, appeared on his face. With a sweet smile for Mother 
he bounded to the door beckoning mysteriously to me. Always ready 
to follow his lead, I soon joined him to hear the original proposal: 
“ Come on, Sis, let’s get some frogs’ eggs and fry ’em. Then we’ll 
get Bob Wood to try ’em first. If they don’t make him sick, we’ll 
fry some more and eat ’em ourselves.” 

Of course I thought the idea wonderful, and we started for the 
pond. Phil made a fire, then went and “ borrowed ” one of Mother’s 
pie tins while I secured the frogs’ eggs. As it turned out, I had the 
worst of the bargain. The log on which I was standing suddenly 
rolled over, throwing me headlong into the slimy water. A great 
experiment was to be made, however; so I paid no attention to my 
discomfort. 

When the eggs were fried, they had a very unappetizing look; 
but, nothing daunted, we called to Bob and generously offered him 
the first taste. He looked at the dish displayed so temptingly, and 
said his mamma didn’t like him to eat eggs. We pleaded and 
threatened, but to no avail — he had suddenly become very anxious 
to obey his mother. Finally we lost patience. Phil then sat on 
Bob and I prepared to feed him the eggs. But our experiment was 
never completed, for the screams of the victim brought our mother 
to his rescue. 

The rest of the episode is still too painful a memory for words, 
for Mother knew very well just how much a switch of wild cherry 
stings when applied with the proper degree of intensity. 


28 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


2. My Visit to a Dentist 

A large sign on the door of the dentist’s office cordially invited 
me, and the words Painless Dentist had a cheerful look. As I have 
little faith in signs, my thoughts were far from pleasant when I 
opened the door and entered the room. The dentist-office odor did 
not help to relieve my mind. 

Sitting down in an armchair, I looked about and saw several 
pictures, a pile of antiquated magazines, a table, eight chairs, an 
elderly woman in faded black, and a grouchy-looking man with a 
swollen jaw. The man told me all his troubles — that his tooth 
pained him terribly, that he had spent a sleepless night, and so forth. 
The woman’s turn came, and the grouch and I were left to ourselves. 
All this time my tooth pained intensely. 

Just then we heard the whirring of an airplane, and went to the 
window to watch its approach. The aviator began to do stunts 
when the machine was almost above us. After watching him dive 
and recover and loop the loop, we were horrified when he lost control 
of his machine and crashed to the ground. I rushed to the door 
and ran to the place where he had fallen. The big crowd that had 
gathered helped to extricate the aviator, who was burned and bruised 
but not seriously injured. 

As soon as I reached home, I told the whole story of the dare¬ 
devil airman and his lucky escape. When I had finished, my mother 
said, “But, poor boy, didn’t the dentist almost kill you when he 
pulled your tooth?” Her question reminded me that I once had had 
a toothache. , 

Paragraph Outline 

1. Trying to take Helen’s doll. 

2. An afternoon of agony. 

3. Father’s verdict delivered at the supper table. 

4. Imprisonment in fenced-in yard. 

5. Awaking in comfortable bed. 

6. Effect of punishment. 

3. My First Punishment 

Sister Helen, after having given in to my demands all the fore¬ 
noon, refused to let me play with her doll because she said she knew 
my propensity for breaking off dolls’ heads to see if their eyes came 
out or if they had any brains or if their tongues were removable. So 


NARRATION 


29 


I» knowing that Mother was out, proceeded to get the doll by any 
means, so great was my desire. Before we knew it, we were both 
embroiled in a fearful quarrel, and I was tugging with all my little 
might at her curls in an attempt to get her to say, “I give up; you 
may have dolly! ” when who should walk in but Mother. She 
separated us, quieted Helen with “Papa will take care of Stella,” 
and said never a word to me. 

All that afternoon was spent in agony, in fearful contemplation 
of what the punishment would be, for I knew there would be some 
sort of punishment as we had been taught never to pull any one’s 
hair. 

Supper time arrived, and I slipped into my seat warily. When 
dessert had been served and I thought that all had been forgotten, 
Mamma poured forth the gruesome details into everybody’s ears. 
Seeing my brothers’ mouths twitching and Papa’s eyes gleaming, 

1 determined that I was in the right and that with their help I 
would vanquish Mother. Then came out my story. “No, it wasn’t 
my fault ’cause I didn’t begin, ’cause she didn’t give me the dolly, 
’cause — ” But a stern “Hush” from Papa stopped all my argu¬ 
ments. His one question was, “Did you pull Helen’s hair? ” and all 
I could answer was “Yes.” Then came the verdict. I was to be 
given my belongings and sent out into the world to seek my living. 
Horrors! I, a little girl of four, how could I do it? 

They dressed me warm in my jacket and hat, gave me a bundle 
made up of a dress, a stocking, and a toothbrush wrapped in a 
handkerchief, and put me into the fenced-in yard. I hammered at 
the kitchen door, but to no avail. There I was left. What was 
1 to do? Where was I to go? In sincere sympathy for myself I 
pictured how grieved they would all be when they found me in the 
morning frozen to death on the doorstep with no one to mourn me 
except the meowing cats that prowled around the yard. Then I 
lay down in the snow to die and make my family repent their cruel 
treatment of me. 

I must have fallen asleep, for when I awoke I was no longer in 
the cold, cruel, outside world but in my comfortable bed with Mother 
bending over me tucking in the covers and saying “Poor little 
kiddie! ” 

The naughty part of me must have truly died out there in the 
yard, for I remember sincerely making up my mind never to be 
bad again. 


30 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


PRACTICE 

Write entertainingly an experience suggested by one of these topics. 
Plan, write, revise thoroughly , copy neatly. Apply the ten narration 
rules. Don’t embellish. Be true. 

1. A curious, exciting, amusing, or unpleasant experience (perhaps 
of childhood). 2. The greatest surprise of my life. 3. My first 
business venture. 4. An incident that taught me a lesson. 5. A 
childhood adventure. 6. Something funny in school. 7. Our 
burglar. 8. The joke was on me. 9. Lost. 10. My autobiography, 
Chapter I. 11. A punishment I deserved. 12. A narrow escape. 
13. An experience with a horse, mule, or automobile. 14. A long 
evening at home alone — noises. 15. My first attempt at learning 
to swim, skate, fish, snowshoe, or ride a bicycle. 16. The experience 
of a bargain hunter. 17. My first day’s work for pay. 18. An 
experience I shall not forget. 19. In the nick of time. 20. An 
exploration. 21. The trick that failed. 22. No gas. 23. Locked 
out. 24. Caught in a storm in the country. 25. A camping experi¬ 
ence. 26. A hasty retreat. 27. The cost of carelessness. 28. The 
meanest thing I ever did. 29. Our circus. 30. It never rains but 
it pours. 31. I was cook. 32. A tragedy of my childhood. 33. Just 
scared. 34. A spoiled adventure. 35. The hornet’s nest. 36. Why 
I didn’t go swimming. 37. Showing off for company. 38. At night 
alone on a country road. 39. An unexpected bath in January. 
40. My part in the game. 41. My first wicked act, public speech, 
trip to the country, dive, baseball game, basketball game, day in 
high school. 


Dinner with General Grant 

The Fifth Avenue Hotel, in those days the stopping-place of the 
majority of the famous men and women visiting New York, rep¬ 
resented to the young boy who came to see these celebrities the 
very pinnacle of opulence. Often while waiting to be received by 
some dignitary, he wondered how one could acquire enough means 
to live at a place of such luxury. The main dining-room, to the 
boy’s mind, was an object of special interest. He would purposely 
sneak upstairs and sit on one of the soft sofas in the foyer simply 
to see the well-dressed diners go in and come out. Edward would 


NARRATION 31 

speculate on whether the time would ever come when he could dine 
in that wonderful room just once! 

One evening he called, after the close of business, upon General 
and Mrs. Grant, whom he had met before, and who had expressed 
a desire to see his collection of letters from distinguished people. 
It can readily be imagined what a red-letter day it made in the boy’s 
life to have General Grant say: “It might be better for us all to 
go down to dinner first and see the collection afterward.” Edward 
had purposely killed time between five and seven o’clock, thinking 
that the general’s dinner-hour, like his own, was at six. He had 
allowed an hour for the general to eat his dinner, only to find that 
he was still to begin it. The boy could hardly believe his ears, and 
unable to find his voice, he failed to apologize for his modest suit 
or his general after-business appearance. 

As in a dream he went down in the elevator with his host and 
hostess; and when the party of three faced toward the dining-room 
entrance, so familiar to the boy, he felt as if his legs must give way 
under him. There have since been red-letter days in Edward Bok’s 
life, but the moment that still stands out preeminent is that when 
two colored head waiters at the dining-room entrance bowed low 
and escorted the party to the table. At last he was in that sump¬ 
tuous dining-hall. The entire room took on the picture of one great 
eye, and that eye centered on the party of three — as, in fact, it 
naturally would. But Edward felt that the eye was on him, wonder¬ 
ing why he should be there. 

What he ate and what he said he does not recall. General Grant, 
not a voluble talker himself, gently drew the boy out, and Mrs. Grant 
seconded him, until toward the close of the dinner he heard himself 
talking. He remembers that he heard his voice, but what that voice 
said is all dim to him. One act stamped itself on his mind. The 
dinner ended with a wonderful dish of nuts and raisins, and just 
before the party rose from the table Mrs. Grant asked the waiter 
to bring her a paper bag. Into this she emptied the entire dish, 
and at the close of the evening she gave it to Edward “to eat on 
the way home.” It was a wonderful evening afterward upstairs, 
General Grant smoking the inevitable cigar, and telling stories as 
he read the letters of different celebrities. 

— Edward Bok, The Americanization of Edward Bok. 


32 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


PRACTICE 

You have had a red-letter day, a lucky experience, or a unique 
vacation experience. Perhaps you have met a distinguished or 
influential person. Taking as a model Edward Bok’s account 
of his dining, when a small boy, with General Grant, narrate 
your experience in either the first or the third person. Apply 
the ten rules. Aim to entertain. 

Observation. A narrative may be a failure because the 
writer didn’t see exactly what happened. We see what 
we carefully observe, not what we lazily look at. In other 
words, we must take a good look at each part of the scene 
and each actor, memorize the details as we memorize 
poetry, and then see just what each actor does. 

How a Safe is Raised 

While hurrying along Fulton Street the other day, I was suddenly 
stopped by a danger sign on the sidewalk. Quickly moving across 
the street, I joined the fast-gathering throng who were watching 
the raising of a large safe into an office building. 

Some men went upstairs and attached a heavy rope with a pulley 
to the edge of the roof. Two men took out the entire window of 
the office, while other men below in the street were straightening 
out the different ropes necessary for the raising of the safe. 

The workmen now rolled the safe off the truck, swathed it in 
heavy canvas, and placed around it a large hemp rope, to which a 
hook was attached. The pulley was lowered from the roof and 
attached to the large hook on the safe. Three men now took hold 
of a rope a short distance away and began to raise the safe by pull¬ 
ing on this rope. Another man kept the safe away from the building 
by holding a guide rope. The safe was slowly but carefully raised 
until it was even with the sill of the office window. It was then 
pulled inside and lowered gently to the floor. 

The ropes were then unwound, the pulley was lowered from the 
roof, and the window was replaced. The men below in the street 
placed the ropes in coils and threw them on the truck. Everything 
was done with precision and care. 

The truck moved away, and our little throng of hustling New 
Yorkers suddenly remembered they had business to attend to and 
rapidly dispersed. 


NARRATION 


33 


PRACTICE 

By taking a good long look at each detail and memorizing what 
you observe, get something to say before writing or speaking on one 
or more of these topics: 

1. An ant hill. Watch a colony of ants for fifteen minutes and 
tell what they do. 2. A half-hour with a baby. 3. My little brother 
or sister. 4. Five minutes of an exciting game. 5. On a train or 
boat. 6. What I saw on the way to school. 7. In the woods. 8. A 
swimming lesson. 9. The fire. 10. A street faker. 11. A crank in 
a restaurant. 12. How the house was moved. 13. How the cellar 
was excavated. 14. How the road was repaired. 15. How the bird 
built its nest or fed its young. 16. The play that won the game. 
17. A brave or kind act. 18. Excitement on our street. 19. At the 
circus. 20. How the race was won. 21. A comedy on a street 
car. 22. An automobile accident. Explain to a jury just how 
the accident happened. 23. Waiting for the train. 


Our Visit to the Blue Grotto 

On our second day on the island of Capri, Father, sister Marion, 
and I wished to visit the famous Blue Grotto. Our Italian guide 
told us that the sea was far too rough to make the trip by boat. 
Seeing our disappointed looks, he added that about two miles distant 
there was a footpath leading down to the grotto, which we could 
take if we did not mind a hard climb. Accordingly we set out in 
carriages over a very rocky road leading under high cliffs and over¬ 
hanging trees. 

At last we arrived at our destination, and dismounted at the head 
of the path, where our driver waited for us. Before we had gone 
far, however, we discovered that the “ footpath was in reality a 
sheep trail, leading in many places along the edge of cliffs and marshy 
ground. In some places walking was impossible, but we o\ ei came 
this difficulty by sitting down and coasting. To make the path 
even more perilous, the rain began to pour down a lolently. As it 
was too late to turn back, we slid on, without umbrellas or raincoats, 

not caring how wet or muddy we got. 

How the bottom was reached nobody knew. Nevertheless we 
finally found ourselves looking at the entrance of the Blue Grotto 
itself. This was by no means a cheerful sight to those wishing to 


34 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


go in, it being merely a narrow hole about two feet high, which every 
rising wave completely filled. This caused Father and Marion to 
lose interest, but as I insisted on seeing the inside, our guide called 
one of the waiting boats and placed me in it, telling me to lie down 
and on no condition to raise my head until through the hole. 

Then the two boatmen rowed out in front of the entrance, and 
on the downward wave sent the boat forward by means of a quick 
pull on an iron chain fastened to the rock, and, throwing themselves 
back, skillfully shot the boat through. Inside, the water was as 
calm as a mill pond; and, getting to my feet, I found myself in 
the most beautiful fairy-like place I have ever seen. The water, 
the vaulted roof, the air, and the boat were the most intense, deep, 
transparent blue imaginable, while the fishes in the water shone like 
streaks of silver, and the round entrance appeared like a silver moon. 
The grotto is approximately eighty feet long and thirty feet high; 
the roof is supported by several natural columns. 

After rowing me around in a circle, the men demanded in fierce 
tones “regalo,” a tip, which, being alone, I thought it unwise to 
refuse. We then rowed back to the opening and shot out in the 
same manner as we had entered. Seeing me arrive safely, Father 
and Marion became brave or reckless and entered the boat. 

When they came out of the grotto, we began our perilous ascent 
of the hill. It was still raining, but that made no difference to us as 
we were already wet and muddy. We plodded on, utterly oblivious 
of puddles and beds of mud, until we reached the top, where we 
climbed into our carriage and drove at breakneck speed up hill and 
down dale to the little hotel. Here we removed our wet and dirty 
things; and, having no extra clothes with us, we all went to bed for 
the rest of the day, while our garments were spread over every heater 
in the house. 


PRACTICE 

Write or speak entertainingly about a trip that you have taken 
to Ellis Island, Navy Yard, Mount Vernon, Niagara Falls, Wash¬ 
ington’s headquarters, Whittier’s birthplace, Longfellow’s home, 
Grand C anyon, country, city, woods, museum, zoo, park, printing 
office, department store, mine, cave, factor, or another place or 
building interesting historically or otherwise. 

Which of the narration rules does your theme or speech illustrate? 




NARRATION 


35 


A Neptune Party 

Some sea customs come and go, but the Neptune Party of sailing 
ship days is still observed. This ancient ceremony, which is cele¬ 
brated when a ship crosses the equator, consists of an initiation 
tendered gratis by those of the ship’s company who have previously 
crossed the equator, to the lubbers who have yet to experience 
sailing beyond the line. 

The preparations made beforehand include the building of a wooden 
platform about seven feet above the deck, adjacent to which a 
fifteen-foot swimming tank is enclosed in heavy canvas. 

Bright and early on the day during which the equator is to be crossed 
the ceremonies are begun. In lieu of bathing suits, which are barred, 
the lubbers must wear a costume consisting of shirt and trousers. 
Each one in turn steps up to the platform where the Neptune Party 
(men who have been initiated on some other voyage) receive them 
with open arms. The doctor of the party gives the lubber a pill 
“for what ails him,” which is a piece of tallow rolled in red pepper. 
The barber then cuts the lubber’s hair with a pair of tinsmith’s 
scissors. Next comes the beauty specialist with his pat of lampblack 
dissolved in water. The lubber’s face is liberally anointed with this 
fluid, after which he stands forth resplendent, a spotted brunette. 
By* this time he is adjudged ready for the grand finale, the descent 
into the tank. This is expeditiously accomplished. He is stood 
against a board, his back to the pool, and an upward heave at the 
board causes his body to perform a striking, if inelegant, parabola 
into the tank. But he does not long enjoy the clean warm water, 
for stationed in the tank are a number of Neptune Party officials 
with slats of ample size, which they apply powerfully to the lubber’s 
body to hasten his exit. 

After having passed all his tests, the triumphant lubber receives 
his Neptune Certificate, which states: Know ye, all ye sea serpents, 
skates, pollywogs, and sharks, that this man is now a member of 
The Royal Order of the Deep and as such is a true son of Neptune 

Rex. 


PRACTICE 

The paragraph topics in the pupil theme are occasion , preparation, 
ceremony , certificate. The words and word-groups used to connect 
sentences are italicized. Paying particular attention to paragraph¬ 
ing and connecting words, entertain the class with an account of 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


36 

a party or picnic — your first party, a dinner party, a beach party, 
a corn roast, a school picnic, a masquerade party, a surprise party, 
a class or club party, an unusual party. 

Overheard at the Bargain Counter 

As I was going through one of the large department stores in 
New York, I happened to see a crowded counter. Curiosity prompted 
me to go over and see what great bargain was attracting all these 
people, most of whom were women. When I reached the counter, 
I saw a sign, “Men’s ties, special SI.00.” 

As I stood there a moment, my attention was attracted by the 
following conversation between the salesgirl and a customer who 
was a rather stout woman, carrying many bundles: 

“Are these ties all silk?” inquired the woman. 

“Yes, madam,” answered the rather negligent clerk, standing 
with her hands on her hips. 

“Are you sure they are all silk?” 

“Yes, madam,” replied the clerk, with a decided accent on the yes. 

“Don’t you think the colors rather bright?” 

No answer from the clerk. 

“You know, my John is so quiet; he never wears anything bright. 
You know one time John — ” 

The salesgirl interrupted with, “Madam, if you want one of 
these ties, please select it quickly as it is closing time.” 

After about ten minutes of picking, choosing, and contemplating, 
she finally pulled one out from the bottom of the pile. It happened 
to be a bright purple with green and yellow stripes. 

“Ah! Isn’t this one pretty? I think I’ll take it. My John will 
like the touch of color. It isn’t so quiet and dead as all the other 
ties here.” 

EXERCISE 

1. How is conversation paragraphed? 

2. How has the pupil avoided repeating “she said”? 

3. Why is this reproduction entertaining? 

PRACTICE 

Reproduce a conversation you have overheard or in which you 
have taken part. Without eavesdropping , keep your ears open for 
talk that is unusual, characteristic, bright, or laughable. 



NARRATION 


37 


1. At the ticket window. 2. In the theater. 3. At the movie. 
4. At the baseball game. 5. At the bargain counter. 6. At the 
dinner table. 7. Waiting for the train. 8. In the street car. 9. At 
the concert. 10. After the school entertainment. 11. On the street 
corner. 12. In the barber shop. 13. In the grocery store. 14. In 
the meat market. 15. In class. 16. At the football or basketball 
game. 17. The family next door. 18. A quarrel. 19. An auto¬ 
mobile accident. 20. After the political meeting. 21. A newsboy 
and a customer. 22. In the restaurant. 23. An interview with 
P'ather. 24. On the railroad train. 25. Asking the way. 26. Pupil 
just home from school and Mother. 27. Generous woman and 
tramp. 

Imagination. A qualification of the teller of original 
stories is vivid imagination. The creatures of his brain 
must be flesh-and-blood human beings, not dream people. 
If people, places, scenes, and situations are not clear in 
the mind of the writer, he cannot make his readers see and 
enjoy them. Hence observation is doubly important, for 
we can imagine only in terms of what we have seen — we 
can’t picture anything unless it is somewhat like what we 
know first-hand. 

Many stories begin with answers to the questions: Who? 
When? Where? Why? — a sentence, a paragraph, or a 
chapter containing such particulars about the time, the 
place, and the actors or events as are necessary to place 
the subject clearly before the reader and to awaken 
his interest in it. Others begin in the midst of things, 
generally with conversation, and introduce descriptive and 
explanatory bits as they are needed. In any case, to arouse 
interest, the writer must picture clearly the people, the 
scene, and the happenings. 

Point of view. In Treasure Island, Jim tells his story 
in the first person. Most stories are written in the third 
person. Usually the first person narrative is easier for the 
beginner. 


38 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


Paragraph Outline 

1. Burglaries and excitement in Bloomsburg. 

2. Peace when burglars depart. 

3. Sam Baker’s boasting to calm his wife’s nerves. 

4. The burglar. 

5. Jean much improved. 

Sam Baker’s Burglar 

In the little town of Bloomsburg three houses were entered by 
burglars during the month of May; and silver, jewelry, and little 
keepsakes disappeared. Such unusual events made conjecture and 
talk for every man, woman, and child. All the highly strung women 
slept little, looked haggard, and a few were reduced to the point 
of hysteria. The men were composed and brave, but the two hard¬ 
ware stores sold out their stock of locks and bolts. 

The police force of one lone man wore his brass-buttoned blue 
uniform for several days, incidentally doing considerable bragging 
and blustering; yet no burglar was apprehended. Gradually the 
women grew calmer, and the excitement died out, for the subject 
had grown threadbare from much discussion and from the lack of 
new developments. The burglars had evidently departed for a more 
lucrative field. 

The whole affair had so upset Jean Baker that she could not throw 
off her nervousness quickly. Her husband Sam, a big, broad- 
shouldered man with a booming voice, spent many a ten minutes 
trying to allay her fears by recounting what he would do to protect 
her if a burglar was caught entering his house. 

A few nights ago Jean shook him and excitedly whispered that 
she had been awakened by a suspicious noise below. Sam, all 
strength and courage, crept downstairs and noiselessly entered the 
living room, and there sure enough was a burglar bending over the 
library table and faintly outlined against the window opposite. Sam 
took one step forward, yelling with a mighty voice, “You get out 
of here!” also striking the burglar with one sure blow of his strong 
right arm. Down crashed to the floor their new goose-neck reading 
lamp. 

The scare ended in such gales of laughter that Jean’s nerves are 
much improved. 










NARRATION 


39 


PRACTICE 

For an imaginative story you may begin with an experience, news¬ 
paper write-up, or incident aboid which you have heard or read, and 
then embellish, distort, make over into a good story by applying the 
narration rules. Think out a probable plot and write as if the story 
were true. 

1. That dreadful day. 2. A bully humbled. 3. A race. 4. Hid¬ 
den treasure. 5. Footprints. 6. Alligator loose in hotel. 7. Har¬ 
nessed bulbs oddest run. 8. Frigid ride for Chinamen. 9. Airedale 
chews up doggie that owner valued at $1000. 10. Women fight 

tarantula. 11. Sticks to burning engine cab. 12. Novel runaway 
on Main Street. 13. Receives strange-looking package on Christmas 
eve. 14. Dog saves boy’s life. 15. Lost in the woods. 16. Bicycle 
runaway. 17. Adrift in a boat. 18. Voyage in a submarine. 
19. Adventure story. 20. Another experience of Robinson Crusoe. 
21. My trip in an airship. 22. A narrow escape. 23. The young 
hero. 24. How the debt was paid. 25. The big brother’s triumph. 
26. Burglar’s bad mistake. 27. The honest Indian. 28. A journey 
to the land of giants. 29. Adventures with wolves. 30. Escape 
from captivity. 31. Outwitting the enemy. 32. The boy who 
got what he went after. 33. A ride for life. 34. The hunt. 35. The 
capture of a whale. 36. The boy patriot. 37. The haunted house. 
38. Paid in full. 39. By motor car to the South Pole. 40. Ship¬ 
wrecked in the South Pacific. 

PRACTICE 

1. Make up a story about the people in the picture on page 40. 
Consider the picture an illustration to be printed with the story. 

Concentrate on plot or characters. 

2. Locate a Rip Van Winkle story in your part of the state in 
the twentieth century. First, read again Irving’s story. Then 
change the characters, setting, and incidents. Imitate Irving s 
style. 

PRACTICE 

Write a story with one of these titles or any other title. Decide first 
whether you wish to write a plot, character, or setting story. 11 Inch 















mm 













NARRATION 


41 


i 

of the ten narration rules does your story illustrate? Has it a good 
climaxt Does the plot lead straight to the climax? Have you written 
simply, sincerely, vividly, and forcefully? 

1. Billy’s one mistake. 2. Handicapped. 3. Euclid versus 
Cupid. 4. Concerning the schemes of mice and men. 5. The 
Armstrong case. 6. For the honor of the school. 7. The runaway. 
8. Just a mixup. 9. Bill Dawson, cowboy. 10. The “fresh” 
freshman. 11. Peg’s dilemma. 12. The absent-minded professor. 
13. Christmas eve at Pendleton’s. 14. The adventures of 
Benjamin Hanson, Esq. 15. Christmas at Cooley’s ranch. 
16. Silent Steve. 17. Uncle Hiram’s will. 18. The Spokane 
special. 19. Mysterious rubies. 20. A midnight telegram. 
21. What would a gentleman do? 22. A glorious failure. 23. The 
vanity girl. 24. Youth triumphant. 25. The conflict. 


i 


CHAPTER IV 

THE PARAGRAPH 

Paragraph development. A paragraph is a sentence or 
a group of sentences developing one topic. Usually to 
make a thought clear or convincing it is necessary to give 
reasons, effects, details, illustrations, instances; to compare 
or contrast it with another thought; to expand the topic 
by looking at it from different angles and expressing it in 
other words; to introduce the testimony of some one who 
can speak with authority on the subject; to build it out; 
in short, to transform a framework into a house or a 
skeleton into a man. A paragraph is such a development 
of a thought. 

Topic sentence. A topic sentence is a brief statement 
of the subject of a paragraph. In narration or description 
no topic sentence is needed. The first sentence in a para¬ 
graph of exposition or argument is commonly a signpost 
telling in what direction and how far the speaker or writer 
expects to travel in the paragraph. The topic sentence 
may be placed in the middle of the paragraph or near the 
end. The beginner, however, progresses more rapidly if 
he forms the habit of expressing the main idea of a para¬ 
graph of exposition or argument in the first sentence. The 
master will write good paragraphs without much thought 
of topic sentences. In every field the artist has greater 
freedom than the mechanic. 

Example. “The government went on, oppressing at home and 
blundering abroad. (Topic sentence) A war was foolishly under¬ 
taken against France, and more foolishly conducted. Buckingham 
led an expedition against Rhe, and failed ignominiously. In the 

42 


THE PARAGRAPH 


43 


meantime soldiers were billeted on the people. Crimes of which 
ordinary justice should have taken cognizance were punished by 
martial law. Near eighty gentlemen,” etc. The paragraph goes on 
enumerating other acts of “oppressing” and “blundering.” 

Sometimes one or more sentences at the beginning of a 
paragraph are intended to connect it with the one that 
precedes, or to prepare the way for the topic sentence. 

Example. “These were mere follies.' (Connective and intro¬ 
ductory sentence) But the spirit excited by these writers produced 
more serious effects. (Topic sentence) The greater part of the 
crimes which disgraced the revolution,” etc. 

Clincher sentence. After driving home his idea in the 
paragraph, a writer may clinch it in the last sentence by 
restating tersely and vigorously the point of the paragraph. 


War and Heroism 1 

Clearly, there is no need of bringing on wars in order to breed 
heroes. (Topic sentence) Civilized life affords plenty of oppor¬ 
tunities for heroes, and for a better kind than war or any other 
savagery has ever produced. Moreover, none but lunatics would 
set a city on fire in order to give opportunities for heroism to fire¬ 
men, or introduce the cholera or yellow fever to give physicians and 
nurses opportunity for practicing disinterested devotion, or condemn 
thousands of people to extreme poverty in order that some well-to-do 
persons might practice a beautiful charity. It is equally crazy to 
advocate war on the ground that it is a school for heroes. (Clincher 
sentence) 

Paragraph unity. Unity has to do with the stuff of 
which a paragraph is made. A paragraph is unified if it 
sticks to the topic. After completing a paragraph, test it 
for unity by summing up the contents in a sentence and by 
noting whether the subject has been kept prominent 
throughout the paragraph. 

1 From Eliot’s Five American Contributions to Civilization by permission 
of the publishers, The Century Co. 


44 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


PRACTICE 

Develop two or more of these topic sentences into paragraphs. End 
each paragraph with a vigorous clincher sentence. 

1. Every boy should learn how to do simple carpentry work. 
2. Every girl should learn how to make her own dresses. 3. An 
important reason for working during vacation is to gain experience. 
4. From the point of view of pleasure I consider stamp collecting 
(or another hobby) an ideal hobby. 5. As an educator no hobby 
surpasses radio (or another hobby). 6. To build a strong body, 
a boy or girl must keep in mind the important laws of health. 
7. The appearance of a person makes a great difference to an 
employer. 8. “Next!” What pictures are called up by that word! 
9. “Where there’s a will there’s a way” is illustrated bj^ the lives 
of many poor boys who have become famous. 10. The pupil who 
has learned to control himself makes the best leader. 11. The 
mental effects of tennis (or another game) have sometimes been 
overlooked. 12. Theodore Roosevelt said wisely that thrift is 
common sense applied to spending. 13. If you want to know 
whether you are a success or failure in life, you can easily find out. 
14. If the person who discovers a fire remains calm, much more 
effective work can be accomplished in fighting the fire than if he 
loses his head. 15. The policeman is a friend of boys and girls. 
16. Many entertainments are educational. 17. The worst fault 

in my written or spoken English is-. 18. While the parks of 

the city are generally well cared for, they could be made much 
more beautiful. 19. If a girl is to be a successful secretary or 
office assistant, she must be interested in her work. 20. If the 
keynote of the successful life is service, home-making is an occupa¬ 
tion second to none. 

Arrangement. The different sentences that compose a 
paragraph must follow one another in natural and logical 
order. If they do not, the attention of the reader is dis¬ 
tracted, and he finds it difficult, if not impossible, to keep 
the thread of the discourse. 



THE PARAGRAPH 


45 


PRACTICE 

Arrange in order the details of the paragraph about the moving 
picture. Then rewrite the paragraph, making the topic sentence 
more definite, arranging the details in order, improving the wording, 
and introducing illustrations to prove the points. 

Moving pictures are of great value to the American people. 
They give to the public a clearer understanding of the questions 
that are of great importance to all. Although some films are 
objectionable, I believe that most moving pictures have an excel¬ 
lent influence. They are one of the best means of spreading propa¬ 
ganda. They show the suffering and destruction brought about 
by the Reds who would throw our country into a turmoil like that 
of Russia. They are cheap and are within the reach of most 
people. They bring to the home foreign countries that many 
people would never see otherwise. They make history more 
vivid. After a man has returned from business, he is tired and 
wants rest from the cares of the world, and the moving picture 
will refresh him for the next day’s work. 

Connectives. It is not enough that the sentences of a 
paragraph follow one another in proper order; the connec¬ 
tion of each with the preceding context must be made 
clear and unmistakable. It is of the utmost importance 
that the sentences should be connected in a clear, smooth, 
easy, and natural manner, so that the thought may be 
carried on without interruption from the beginning to the 
close. Connective words or phrases act as mortar, glue, 
or hooks and eyes to fasten the parts together. r Iaine, 
speaking of connective words and phrases, says, “ The art 
of writing is the art of using hooks and eyes.” 

Useful hooks and eyes are this, that, these, those, such, 
and same, personal pronouns, repeated nouns, adverbs, 
conjunctions, and connective phrases. 

Examples. 1. After a short ride my steed stopped suddenly at a 
bridge over a small stream. First, by beating him, I tried to force 
him to cross the stream. Then I coaxed him and tried to bribe 


46 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


him with promises of sugar, but he would not cross that bridge. 
Finally I dismounted and tried to pull him over the stream, but 
Cicero would not budge. 

2. His canny humor lights up the political and theological con¬ 
troversies of the times with quaint incisive phrases. His reading 
was extensive; and he was a voluminous author on subjects which 
ranged from predestinarianism to tobacco. But his shrewdness and 
learning only left him the wisest fool in Christendom. 

3. Entering the gulf, he endeavored to find the river Darien. 
This river he could not discover. 

The repeated word is called an echo word. 

Select the exact connective. And, moreover, further, 
furthermore, also, likewise, similarly, too, in like manner, 
in the same way, and besides are plus signs. They indicate 
addition of ideas. 

But, nevertheless, otherwise, on the other hand, conversely, 
on the contrary, however, yet, and still are minus signs and 
introduce statements opposing, negativing, or limiting in 
some way the preceding statements. 

Then, now, somewhat later, presently, thereupon, thereafter, 
eventually, at the same time, and meanwhile show time 
relation. 

Next, in the second place, to begin with, finally, secondly, 
in conclusion, and first indicate the order. 

To the right, in the distance, straight ahead, and at the left 
show space relation. 

For instance and for example introduce illustrations. 

Hence, consequently, thus, so, for this reason, accordingly, 
therefore, as a result, and it follows that indicate a consequence 
or conclusion. 

In fact, indeed, and in other words indicate a repetition of 
the idea. 

Similarly and likewise are used in comparisons. 

Sometimes the relation of the sentences is such that the 
connection is evident without the insertion of any joining 
word or phrase. This is the case: 


THE PARAGRAPH 


47 


1. When the thoughts are very closely related; as, 

He turned his horse towards Thame, where he arrived almost 
fainting with agony. The surgeon dressed his wounds. 

2. When the sentence explains or repeats the one going 
before it; as, 

I need not enlarge upon the subject. The case is perfectly plain. 

3. In a statement of consequence; as, 

Further resistance on your part is hopeless. I ask the surrender 
of your army. 

EXERCISES 

1. A useless connective makes the sentence less forceful. Why? 

2. List other connectives that show space relation. 

3. A connective phrase should indicate the direction in which 
the writer’s thought is traveling and thus help readers to find the 
meaning. What relationship between sentences is indicated by 
each of the following? 

Indeed, in general, above all, hence, at least, to he sure, to sum up, 
in short, on the whole, after all, at all events, thus, in this way, on the 
other hand, of course, after this long delay, at such times, even, for 
these reasons, for this purpose, I admit, incidentally, in that case, 
once more, perhaps, then too, to crown all, to proceed, to return, to 
this end, in addition to this, for all that, as a consequence, in fact, 
on the contrary, again, for, for that matter, as a matter of fact. 

Which belong in the same class? Which belong in the classes 
already named? 

REVIEW 

A paragraph is built somewhat like a wall. (Topic sentence) 
Each sentence or idea of the paragraph is like a brick of the wall. 
(Detailed comparison) For the wall, one first selects red, buff, 
or gray brick, and then, as he lays the bricks, applies mortar to 
hold them together. (Details about wall) For a paragraph on 
How to Swim, a pupil selected the subtopics: breathing, arms and 
hands, thinking, and feet; decided that a natural order would be 
arms and hands, feet, breathing, thinking; and inserted also, in 


48 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


fact, and nevertheless, and repeated swimmer and thinking to tie 
the sentences together. (Example of paragraph building) For 
this reason, instead of writing a jumble of sentences, which 
resemble a pile of bricks, he built a real paragraph. (Result) 
Building walls or paragraphs requires selecting, arranging, and con¬ 
necting. (Clincher sentence) 


1. Elimination of carpenters’ bills. 

2. Preparedness in case of emergencies. 

Carpentry for Boys 

Every boy should learn how to use carpenters’ tools because the 
knowledge gained will be of advantage to him all his life. When 
the screens have to be put up, the back porch repaired, or a new 
front gate made, he will not be at the mercy of the autocratic king 
of the village, the carpenter. He will merely get out his tools, and 
then, in less time than it would have taken to send for a carpenter, 
a new leg will adorn the kitchen table. 

Then again, there is the case of emergencies. Suppose that the 
cellar stairs were to fall down some Sunday morning during a mid¬ 
winter blizzard. Of course it would be impossible to get a carpenter 
until Monday; but, in the mean time, do you intend to let the 
furnace go out? No, not if the boy who has studied carpentry is 
around. He will just get out his kit of tools, and in a jiffy the stairs 
will be back in place again, probably better and stronger than ever 
before, for he will have seen why they fell down, and in re-installing 
them, will prevent the accident from re-occurring. Thus not only 
will he be able to save money, but he will not be inconvenienced 
by unexpected accidents. 

Arrangement. In the first sentence the thought is that 
every boy should learn the use of carpenters’ tools. The 
advantage of such knowledge is referred to in the second 
sentence. The second sentence also mentions that there 
are many occasions when a carpenter is required. The 
third sentence tells that the boy who has studied carpentry 
will be able to dispense with the services of a carpenter at 
such times. 


THE PARAGRAPH 


49 


In the second paragraph the first sentence mentions the 
possibility of an accident occurring; the second pictures 
such an accident; the third shows the effect of the accident; 
the fourth mentions a solution of the problem; the fifth 
gives details; the sixth summarizes. 

Connectives. He in the second sentence and he in the 
third sentence refer back to hoy in the first sentence. Car¬ 
penter in the third sentence refers back to carpenter in the 
second. 

The second paragraph begins with the words then again. 
The second sentence in this paragraph contains the phrase 
of course. The final sentence begins with the word thus. 
He in the fifth and sixth sentences refers back to hoy. 

PRACTICE 

Write two unified, well-arranged, connected paragraphs con¬ 
trasting seeing a play and reading it, reading a novel and seeing 
the moving picture based on it, vacation at the seashore and in the 
mountains, home and camp, a prosperous and a poor farmer, a 
department store on Saturday afternoon and at midnight, a school¬ 
room before school and during an examination, before and after 
the storm, game, or fire, two cities, towns, men, companies, 
schools, colleges, homes, teams, tennis players, speakers, stores, 
offices, recitations, books, or writers. 

Then show specifically, as in the model, that your ideas are 
logically arranged and your sentences properly connected. 

Paragraph force. Force in the paragraph may be gained 
by applying the rules for sentence force, by beginning and 
ending the paragraph with important ideas, and by giving- 
extra space to the principal detail and placing it near the 
end of the paragraph. The first sentence is important 
because it first catches the eye; the last, because, if well 
written, it will be remembered longest. 




50 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


PRACTICE 

Study these sentences until you understand them. Then form them 
into a paragraph that follows the rules laid down. 

Insects are the curse of tropical climates. In a moment you are 
covered with ticks. Chigoes bury themselves in your flesh. They 
hatch a colony of young chigoes in a few hours. They will not live 
together. Every chigoe sets up a separate ulcer. Flies get entry into 
your mouth, into your eyes, into your nose; you eat flies, drink flies, 
and breathe flies. Lizards, cockroaches, and snakes get into the 
bed; ants eat up the books; scorpions sting you on the foot. Every¬ 
thing bites, stings, or bruises; every minute you are wounded by 
some piece of animal life. An insect with eleven legs is swimming 
in your teacup, a nondescript with nine wings is struggling in the 
small beer, or a caterpillar with several dozen eyes in his belly is 
hastening over the bread and butter. All nature is alive. It seems 
to be gathering its hosts to eat you up as you are standing out of 
your coat and breeches. Such are the tropics. This reconciles us 
to our dews, fogs, and drizzles. This helps us to put up with our 
apothecaries rushing about with gargles and tinctures. It helps us 
to endure our coughs, sore throats, and swelled faces. The danger 
seems to be much less with snakes and wild beasts if you conduct 
yourself like a gentleman. If you pass on gently, you may walk 
unhurt within a yard of the bush-master snake. If you rush upon 
him, he will put you to death. Most animals look upon man as a 
very ugly customer. They do not care to attack him. They do it 
for food or in self-defense. Mr. Waterton made a bush-master snake 
bite itself. No harm ensued. No harm would ensue if a sinful soldier 
gave himself a thousand lashes. 


EXERCISE 

Examine each of the following paragraphs and answer these 
questions: 

1. Is there a topic sentence? What? 

2. Is there a clincher sentence? What? 

3. Does the paragraph possess unity; that is, do all the 
sentences bear on the topic? Prove. 





THE PARAGRAPH 


51 


4. Are the sentences arranged in logical order? Prove. 

5. Are the sentences smoothly and properly connected? How? 

6. Is the paragraph forceful? Prove. 

7. How is the paragraph built or developed? 

1 

In spite of his great size the elephant is quite timid. A strange 
animal or an unfamiliar noise will start him in a panic. Once Tody 
Hamilton, the Barnum & Bailey press agent, had me demonstrate 
to a group of New York reporters how easy it was to frighten an 
elephant. It was at the winter quarters in Bridgeport. We had at 
the time some two or three dozen elephants and I let a pig loose 
among them. There was a commotion at once. They snorted and 
squealed and kicked — and by the way they can use their hind legs 
like Gatling guns. I also put some rats in among them and they 
were just as afraid of them. If they had not all been well chained, 
the whole bunch of them would have run away. — George Conklin, 
The Ways of the Circus. 


2 

In a nutshell this is Japan’s problem: She has more than sixty 
million people in a territory smaller than the State of California, 
and her population is increasing by seven hundred thousand each 
year. More than half of her people are agriculturists, and the average 
size of a Japanese farm is about two-thirds of an acre. Furthermore, 
she is very poor in those natural resources which form the blood of 
modern industry — that is, coal, iron, and petroleum. Japan must 
find an adequate supply of these resources, and she must find an 
outlet for her growing population. Her problem can be roughly 
summed up in three words: “metal and emigration.” — Ihe Outlook. 


3 

Many miles of the journey were sandy, barren wastes producing 
only the dismal, thorn-bristling dwarf forests. Every now and then 
we dodged from one wide caricature of a road to another still more 
choppy and rock-strewn; occasionally we found a mile or two of 
tolerable highway. The scarcity of travelers was in striking contrast 
to Haiti. The people we met w r ere never on foot, but in clumsy 
carts or astride gaunt, but hardy little horses. Houses of woven 
palm-leaves on bare, reddish, hard soil sheltered the poorer inhabi- 


52 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


tants; the better-to-do built their dwellings of split palm-trunks 
that had the appearance of clapboards. Villages were rare and 
isolated, houses wholly lacking. Outdoor mud ovens on stilts, with 
rude thatched roofs over them, adorned nearly every side or back 
yard. At each village we halted before a roughly constructed post 
office to exchange mail bags with a postmaster who in the majority 
of cases showed no visible negro strain. Pure white inhabitants 
were frequent in the larger pueblos; full-blooded African types 
extremely rare. Santo Domingo has been called a mulatto country, 
we found it more nearly a land of quadroons. 1 

4 

City managership seems to have established itself as a profession. 
There are about one hundred eighty city managers in this country 
today, and one of them has been advanced, step by step, from the 
job of directing a small city in Michigan and a somewhat larger 
one in New York, to that of managing the city of Springfield, Ohio, 
at a salary of $6,000, and now he becomes the manager of Dubuque, 
Iowa, at a salary of $8,000. This is the only instance of three promo¬ 
tions thus far recorded, but three city managers have been advanced 
at least once. The highest salary the profession as yet commands 
is $12,000, paid by Norfolk, Va. Besides this, Dayton and Akron, 
Ohio, Grand Rapids, Mich., and Wheeling, W. Va., are among the 
larger cities which are now operating under city-manager charters. 
The encouraging feature of the history of this new occupation is 
that the men who engage in it take their jobs seriously and strive 
for results along lines of business efficiency, holding annual con¬ 
ventions, discussing technical problems by correspondence, and 
swapping professional information. In time they may come to con¬ 
stitute a body of consulting experts with both ideas and experience 
at their command. — Boston Herald. 

5 

About this time I met with an odd volume of the Spectator. I 
had never before seen any of them. I bought it, read it over and 
over, and was much delighted with it. I thought the writing excel¬ 
lent, and wished if possible to imitate it. With that view I took 
some of the papers, and making short hints of the sentiments in 
each sentence, laid them by a few days, and then, without looking 

1 From Harry A. Franck’s Roaming Through the West Indies by per¬ 
mission of the publishers, The Century Co. 



THE PARAGRAPH 


53 


at the book, tried to complete the papers again by expressing each 
hinted sentiment at length, and as fully as it had been expressed 
before, in any suitable words that should occur to me. Then I 
compared my Spectator with the original, discovered some of my 
faults, and corrected them. But I found I wanted a stock of words, 
or a readiness in recollecting and using them, which I thought I 
should have acquired before that time, if I had gone on making 
verses; since the continual search for words of the same import, but 
of different length to suit the measure, or of different sound for the 
rhyme, would have laid me under a constant necessity of searching 
for variety, and also have tended to fix that variety in my mind, 
and make me master it. Therefore I took some of the tales in the 
Spectator , and turned them into verse; and after a time, when I had 
pretty well forgotten the prose, turned them back again. — Benjamin 
Franklin, Autobiography. 

6 

Shortly after her return to England to found a hospital there, 
the Crimean War, in which France, England, and Turkey fought 
against Russia, broke out. There was terrible mismanagement in 
the military hospitals. Supplies were lacking; two thousand wounded 
men at Scutari were lying for days in mud and filth, just as they 
had been brought in from the battlefield; sick men were packed 
together in hordes, sometimes on the bare floor; the place, it could 
hardly be called a hospital, was alive with rats and vermin; there 
was no soap nor towels, and only one kind of food, Irish stew, for 
men so ill that they should have had the most careful nursing and 
delicate food. Into this scene of misery and squalor came Florence 
Nightingale, called by the British government as the first woman 
nurse to enter a British military hospital. She came with a group 
of women from her hospital and seemed a real angel of mercy to 
those sick and dying men. The dirt was cleaned away; the men 
were bathed and given fresh clothing; new temporary buildings 
were built; good food was served the men; letters home were written 
for them; and the number of those who recovered from their wounds 
was increased greatly. All this was due to the work of this one 
woman, Florence Nightingale, and her corps of workers. — Red Cross 
Magazine. 

7 

Naylor wound up and seemed to put every ounce of energy he 
had in him into the pitch. The ball sped toward the plate like a 
rifle bullet, and looked as if it were going high and on the outside. 


54 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


But just before it reached the plate, it hopped sharply down and 
in, and cut the plate in half. “Strike two!” bellowed the umpire. 
Three and two! The crowd was tense and silent. Jones and Bush 
took recklessly long leads. Cobb shifted to a firmer position, swing¬ 
ing his bat as he did so. 

8 

The successful salesman must know his goods thoroughly and 
believe in them. For instance, the automobile salesman must 
understand the mechanics of his motor, the self-starting system, 
storage batteries, lights, and electrical wiring. He should also be 
acquainted with other makes of cars in order to compare them and 
point out to the prospective buyer the exclusive features of his car. 
If he is selling W illys-Knight cars, he must know and explain why 
the sleeve-valve system in their motors is superior to the valve-in¬ 
head construction used by the Buick people. A clothing salesman 
must be an experienced judge of cloth and fabrics. He should know 
fine tailoring and poor workmanship when he sees it. The rule 
holds true, no matter what the goods may be, that the salesman 
who is sincere and has studied his article inspires confidence. 

V 


PRACTICE 

Point out the defect or defects in the structure of each of these 
paragraphs. Using ideas in one of the paragraphs and your own 
ideas, construct a unified, well-arranged, connected, forceful para¬ 
graph. Improve the word choice and sentence structure. 

1 

One of the best of the summer sports is tennis, a game requiring 
energy, endurance, and skill. The principles of tennis are not difficult 
to learn, but it takes years to become a good player, for improvement 
can always be made in playing. To have fun and good sport in 
playing, all one requires is a jovial disposition and an ability to judge 
fairly. In this game it is very much better to be a good player, in 
order to have a good time, than to be a poor player, but even a 
poor player may find fun in it. Coasting and ice-skating are my 
favorite winter sports. Coasting is fine, where a good hill can be 
found. A hill about one quarter of a mile is as long as one would 
want because a hill that is longer requires making a weary walk 
back to the starting place, which act spoils some of the fun. Single- 


THE PARAGRAPH 


55 


sled coasting is very amusing, but more sport can be obtained from 
making a bobsled. The longer the “bob/' which is made by joining 
many sleds one after the other, the more sport may be obtained. 
A few girls, with their screams and laughter, sometimes add zest 
to this sport. 

2 

Calisthenics under a teacher’s direction help to build up the body. 
This method needs variation. At the present time the pupil has 
little time for outdoor play, which would relieve the monotony; he 
always has homework to do. The abolition of homework, as the 
nine to five schedule provides, would enable the boy or girl to enjoy 
himself or herself without worrying what a teacher was going to 
say the following day about neglected lessons. This outdoor, care-free 
play will go farther to make a man out of a boy or a woman out of 
a girl than several hours spent over a textbook. 

PRACTICE 

Select three or four of these topics, build on each a unified, well- 
arranged, connected, forceful paragraph, and discuss the arrangement 
and connectives of one paragraph: 

1. How to write a paragraph. 2. The most important thing 
I have learned in school. 3. How I made a dress for two dollars. 
4. Should novels be illustrated? 5. One cause of poverty. 6. How 
to buy food cheaply. 7. Differences between an Airedale and an 
Irish terrier, snow and hail, dew and rain, an elm and an oak, 
a peeper and a bullfrog, a song sparrow and an English sparrow, 
wool and cotton, walking and running, or labor and exercise. 
8. The objectives in the study of English. 9. One way to raise 
money for church or charity. 10. When is silence golden? 11. How 
to plan one’s day. 12. My estimate of a living statesman or 
politician. 13. My opinion of a living novelist, short-story 
writer, dramatist, or poet. 14. The characteristics of a well- 
known American business man. 15. The purpose of a school 
paper. 16. Why read fiction or biography? 17. Why I enjoy 
hunting, fishing, reading, riding, or housework. 18. Should a 
business man read poetry? 


CHAPTER V 


THE WHOLE COMPOSITION 

Planning. Composition means “ putting together/' not 
aimlessly tossing together words and sentences as a child 
piles up his blocks, but putting together ideas to accomplish 
a purpose as a carpenter nails boards on a framework in 
carrying out an architect’s plan. The carpenter, unlike 
the small child, knows what he is making. A plan is as 
necessary in building a composition as in building a table, 
fireless cooker, or skyscraper. For a brief composition 
the plan may be mental, but in general a pen or pencil and 
a piece of paper aid in making ideas definite and accurate. 

Purpose. As the plan depends upon the purpose, first 
set down on paper or say aloud just what you wish to 
accomplish. The statement should name the person or 
group at whom you are aiming your ideas. 

Example. I am writing this theme for the Class Book, which 
will be bound and placed in the library. I wish to give such an 
explanation of mining engineering as will guide pupils in the choice 
of a vocation. 

Rough plan. Next it is well to jot down more or less at 
random all your ideas on the subject. 

Mining Engineering 

What a mining engineer does. 

The Columbia University course in mining engineering. 

Uncle Will took that course. 

How a mining engineer gets his start.. 

My visit to an anthracite coal mine. 

Is the field overcrowded? 


56 







THE WHOLE COMPOSITION 


57 


Work. 

Pay. 

High cost of living. 

Health. 

Qualities needed to be successful. 

Opportunity for service. 

Then ask yourself these questions: Which topics will 
not help me to accomplish my purpose? What other infor¬ 
mation do I need? Are all topics of equal importance, or 
have I set down some subtopics? What is a sensible 
arrangement of the main topics? 

Main topics. After answering these questions, you have 
an outline in this form: 

I. The work of a mining engineer., 

II. Opportunities in the field. 

III. Remuneration. 

IV. Preparation. 

V. Qualities of a successful mining engineer. 

VI. Conspicuous advantages and disadvantages of the vocation. 

Detailed topical outline. To complete the outline, insert 
subtopics. Note the arrangement of subtopics under one 
main topic. 

V. Qualities of a successful mining engineer. 

A. Sound constitution and good health. 

B. Social qualities. 

1. Ability to handle men. 

2. His happiness not dependent on social pleasures of city. 

C. Intellectual qualities. 

1. Close observation. 

2. Clear thinking. 

3. Sound judgment. 

4. Originality. 

D. Moral qualities. 

1. Will to work hard 

2. The never-say-die spirit. 


58 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


How to get thoughts. To get thoughts, to have some¬ 
thing to say, is the hardest part of writing or speaking. 
When thoughts do not come, they can sometimes be drawn 
out by asking How? When? Why? Where? Then again, 
ideas may be found by conversing with people who know 
something of the subject; they may also be gathered from 
the works of those who have written on the same subject 
or on similar subjects. If you secure information from 
books or magazines, always, before writing, read two or 
more articles and think over carefully what you have read. 


How to Write an Outline 

1. Use the Harvard system of notation and uniform 
indention. Note the illustration. Print the capital letters 
used. Keep corresponding letters or numbers in vertical 
columns: A, B, C, D; 1, 2, 3, 4. Subtopics under an 
arabic numeral call for small letters. Subtopics under 
a, b, c are marked (1), (2), (3). 

2. Capitalize the first word of each topic and words that 
would he capitalized in a sentence. 

3. Use parallel phrasing for coordinate headings. In the 
first illustration nouns or nouns with modifiers are used 
throughout. Sentences make a longer outline but express 
more definitely the important ideas. A mixture for coor¬ 
dinate headings (A, a noun topic and B, a sentence, or 
vice versa) is objectionable. 

4. Punctuate consistently. Note the punctuation in the 
illustrations. 

5. If a topic occupies two or more lines, begin lines after 
the first a little farther to the right than the beginning of the 
first line. 

6. If the words introduction, body, and conclusion are 

used, don’t number them. 

7. Avoid the use of single subtopics. Think what sub- 


THE WHOLE COMPOSITION 


59 


division means. When you are tempted to write one sub- 
topic, reconstruct the main topic and include the point 
in it. 

8. Don't rank as principal any thought that may be classi¬ 
fied under one of the general heads. 

9. See that no point disguised in different words is allowed 
to appear twice. 

10. If you find any topics that at first seem relevant but 
are not to the point , throw them out without hesitation. 

Noun-and-Modifiers Outline 
Dish Washing 

I. Preparation for washing dishes. 

A. Arranging for hot water. 

B. Putting away all food. 

C. Scraping refuse into pan or pail. 

D. Piling similar dishes together. 

E. Having ready a clean dishcloth and a supply of clean, 

dry towels. 

II. Order in dish washing. 

A. The glassware first. 

B. Then cups and saucers and cleanest dishes. 

C. Next the silver. 

D. Plates and remaining dishes. 

E. Cooking utensils. 

III. Washing, rinsing, drying, and putting away the dishes. 

IV. Care of dishcloths, towels, dishpan, and sink. 

Sentence Outline 
Brief History of Cotton 

I. After cotton had been known by the people of India for two 
thousand years, Alexander the Great discovered it there. 
4. His generals reported shrubs bearing tufts or bunches of 
wool. 


60 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


B. His soldiers used the vegetable wool for bedding and as 
pads for their saddles. 

II. All the Spanish explorations proved that the cultivation and 
manufacture of cotton were known to natives of South 
America. 

A. Cortez was impressed by the fine embroidered mantles. 

B. Before the times of the Incas, the “Chimu” used cotton 

garments. 

III. Cotton was known in North America before the time of 
Columbus. 

A. Some of the first articles that attracted Columbus’s 

attention were made of cotton. 

B. Cubans used cotton hammocks and wore cotton garments. 


PRACTICE 

Civics 

Write the topical outline of a composition on one of the following 
subjects: 

1. Water supply. 2. Keeping the city or town clean. 3. Gas 
and electricity. 4. Building and housing. 5. What the Health 
Department does. 6. The Fire Department. 7. The Police 
Department. 8. Courts. 9. Transportation facilities. 10. Mar¬ 
ket facilities. 11. Education. 12. Recreation. 13. Care of 
unfortunates, paupers, and cripples. 14. Cost of the city or town 
government. 15. How city or town laws are made. 16. Rights 
and duties of citizens. 17. How our city or town is governed. 
18. Clean back yards and health. 19. Purity of the milk supply. 
20. Quarantine — meaning and importance. 21. Health a matter 
of public concern. 22. The ideal wholesale market. 23. Frauds 
in marketing. 24. Kinds of scales. 25. Play streets. 26. Value 
of parks. 27. Essentials of a good budget. 28. Some tests of 
good citizenship. 29. Child labor. 30. Compulsory schooling. 
31. Sweat shops. 32. Benefits derived from good street lighting. 
33. Carelessness and fires. 34. First aid in case of fire. 35. Auto¬ 
mobile regulations. 36. Se'rvices of the local government to my 
family. 37. Refuse. 38. Should the city or town provide free 


THE WHOLE COMPOSITION . 


61 


lunches for school children? 39. Three ways in which a citizen 
may contribute to the welfare of his community. 40. The most 
useful citizen in our community. 

Writing out. After carefully planning the composition, 
write as freely and rapidly as the thoughts come to the 
mind, without paying much attention to anything except 
the expression of the thought. It is a good plan to write 
the lines some distance apart, so as to allow space for 
interlining. 

Revision. After the whole essay or any one of the parts 
has been written out, read it over carefully to see if all the 
thoughts have been expressed, and expressed in the proper 
place, as well as in the most suitable manner. If the first 
writing seems generally unsatisfactory, write the whole 
again, and even a third time. Such labor will be amply 
repaid. Then criticize and revise slowly and thoroughly. 
Find and correct the errors in spelling, punctuation, capital¬ 
ization, grammar, idiom, word choice, sentence structure, 
and paragraph structure. If a word is needlessly repeated, 
cross it out and insert another word. Cross out common¬ 
place expressions and substitute specific, vigorous, or 
picturesque words. Stevenson, who always revised at 
least eight times, once said, “ To write, as I try to write, 
takes every ounce of my vitality.” 

Copying. After thoroughly revising the composition, 
copy it neatly and legibly. Remember that a typist is 
rated according to the number of perfect letters she can 
turn out in a day. 

PRACTICE 

Write or speak the composition outlined. 

Unity. Lowell says, “ The art of writing consists in 
knowing what to leave in the inkpot.” Unity requires the 
rigid exclusion of facts, thoughts, allusions, and statistics 


62 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 

that do not directly assist in the accomplishment of your 
purpose; in other words, that are not clearly subtopics of 
the main headings chosen. Think of a speech or theme as a 
direct march to a definite point rather than as a ramble 
at will through woods and fields. Such details of a visit 
to an anthracite coal mine as trains, hotels, companions, 
and incidents of the trip have no bearing on mining engineer¬ 
ing as a vocation and should be excluded from the composi¬ 
tion planned. 

1. Ways to injure our country. 

2. Ways to build defences for our country. 

The Good Citizen 

Among the myriads that have flocked to the shore of America 
since 1607 , among her hundred millions now living, it is inevitable 
that some, heedless of her goodness, should waste her resources and 
hinder her strength. They forget that every ignorant and selfish 
act stabs her heart. Every landowner who deforests a hillside, drying 
the springs that water his neighbor’s land in the valley, every man 
who kills the crop-saving birds, every voter who goes to the polls 
without a careful knowledge of the record of his candidate, thrusts 
home the knife. Every employer who does not try to understand 
his workmen, every workman who does not try to cooperate with 
his employer, every writer who stirs up anger and hate, dividing a 
united land into “ classes,” is wasting, injuring, betraying the generous 
country to which he owes his own life and liberty. 

On the other hand, every father who lays down his newspaper 
to play and read with his children, to teach Jane the game of checkers 
or to help Tom build a fort in the back yard; every mother who 
props a book on the moulding board and hears Dorothy’s spelling 
and Willie’s reading, cheerful though boy fingers drum on the table 
and restless feet squirm on the floor, is building defences for the 
land we love. To wave a flag, to thrill at the sound of marching 
feet, is easy. But to do, day after day, in discouragement and 
prosperity, the things that are honest, the things that are kind, to 
pour one’s self all the time into the high calling of a citizen of a 
great Republic, is not easy. It is hard. But it is the price not only 
of our own but of the world’s liberty. 


THE WHOLE COMPOSITION 


63 


PRACTICE 

The United States 

On one of the following topics write or speak to inform or convince 
the class. 

Test the paragraphs and, the whole composition for unity. 

When a detailed outline is not required, write above the theme an 



Courtesy of Asahel Curtis, Seattle 
MOUNT RAINIER 

outline by paragraphs; that is, the subjects of the paragraphs num¬ 
bered 1, 2, 3, 1+. 

1. Why I am glad I am an American. 2. My duty as an Ameri¬ 
can boy (girl). 3. How we should treat our flag. 4. A danger 
confronting our country. 5. Should the United States Congress 
reenact the daylight savings law? 6. How should the government 
deal with extreme radicals? 7. Why the foreign born should be-/ 



64 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


come American citizens. 8. Benefits of an enlistment in the 
United States Army. 9. The usefulness of the United States 
Senate. 10. How I should like to vote in the coming election, 
and why. 11. Foreign languages in the United States. 12. A bit 
of America’s scenery. 13. An American inventor. 14. How a 
bill becomes a law. 15. The “Yellow Peril” in California. 
16. Why see America first? 17. How presidential candidates are 
nominated. 18. How the president is elected. 19. How an alien 
becomes a citizen. 20. Difference between a federal republic and 
a centralized republic. 

Arrangement. In a composition the first paragraph 
should lead up to the second, and the second prepare for 
the third. The happenings in a story are ordinarily ar¬ 
ranged in time order. The details of a picture are arranged 
in the order of observation. This is usually the space order, 
because after observing a detail one naturally sees next a 
detail near the first. In exposition you will often place 
first facts necessary for an understanding of later para¬ 
graphs. When in doubt, begin with a vital topic and lead 
up to a climax at the end. These four types of arrange¬ 
ment are time order, space order, emphasis order, and 

• A' v /'y- 

necessary-facts-first order. 

f*.. '* r r 

Simple plans for the arrangement of material are: cause— 
effect; fact — explanation; easy—difficult; idea—action — 
consequences; disadvantages — advantages; physical — so¬ 
cial — intellectual — moral; profit — duty; interesting hap¬ 
pening— the big event; unnecessary — impracticable — 
injurious. 


EXERCISE 

Supply one or more suitable topics to complete each of the follow¬ 
ing plans: 

1. Past. 2. Near. 3. Anticipation. 4. Principles. 5. Unwise 
6. Statement. 7. Mystery. 8. Happenings. 9. Argument for. 
10. The need. 11. Preparations. 


THE WHOLE COMPOSITION 


65 


PRACTICE 

School 

Arrange logically the ideas of a speech or written theme about school 
and explain the plan of arrangement. Aim to inform, convince, or 
move to action. 

1. Changes needed in our school-building, rules, course of stud} r , 
school ground. 2. What I like about our school. 3. The aims of 
our school. 4. How our school prepares for good citizenship. 
5. Waste of time in school. 6. A well-dressed high-school girl. 
7. How to prepare for an examination. 8. What I have gained 
by attending high school. 9. Why our school should have a 
summer session. 10. Advantages of employment during the 
summer vacation. 11. Why be on time? 12. How to spend the 
summer vacation. 13. Are clubs and elections a waste of time? 
14. Summary of an assembly speech. 15. How to improve the 
memory. 16. How to find information in the library. 17. Why go 
to college? 18. Should a boy or girl go in debt for a college educa¬ 
tion? 19. Should our school organize a poster club, service league, 
chess club, debating society, parliamentary club, civics club, school 
bank, swimming club, hockey team, literary society, dramatic 
club, Cercle Fran§ais, or sketch club (or abolish a club now in 
existence)? 20. Criticism of an assembly speaker. 21. Causes of 
failure in school. 22. Should our school have an agricultural (or 
a household arts) department? 23. Does high-school education 
pay? 24. A comparison of two school courses; for example, the 
general and the commercial. 25. My mistakes in high school. 
26. Explain a school rule to a newcomer. 27. How to earn money 
while in high school. 

Connectives. Not only must paragraphs be connected 
in thought, but their relation must be made clear. Para¬ 
graph indention serves notice that a new topic is being 
discussed but does not suggest what the new topic has to 
do with the old one. Commonly the relation between 
paragraphs is shown by having a sentence at the end ol 
a paragraph announce the topic of the next paragraph, by 


66 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


having the first sentence of a paragraph refer to the pre¬ 
ceding paragraph, or by using conjunctions and connective 
phrases. Connectives are listed in the chapter on the 
paragraph. 

PRACTICE 

Home 

Give the class some worth-while information on one of these topics. 
Pay particular attention to arrangement and connectives. At the encl 
prove that the composition is well arranged and connected. 

1. Advantages of owning a home. 2. Trees, shrubs, garden. 
3. The heating plant. 4. The living room. 5. Paint and paper. 
6. Pictures. 7. The dining room. 8. The kitchen. 9. Home 
pleasures. 10. The laundry. 11. The cellar. 12. Magazines and 
books. 13. How to entertain a company of young people. 14. The 
duties of children. 15. The duties of the hostess. 16. The duties 
of a guest. 17. My room as I should like it. 18. How to decorate 
a dinner table. 19. Cleaning devices — vacuum cleaner, dustless 
mop, various brushes. 20. Cooking and serving devices — tea 
wagon, electric toaster, percolator, grill. 21. Other labor-saving 
devices. 22. Should children have allowances or be paid for their 
work in the home? 23. A cozy room. 24. How to wait on table. 

Clearness. Either simple or abstruse thoughts may be 
placed clearly before the reader; yet abstruse thoughts 
may still be difficult to apprehend, although clearly 
expressed; and simple thoughts may be so expressed as to 
appear confused or ambiguous. 

Clearness may be gained by — 

1. Simplicity — 
a. In diction. 

(1) Familiar words convey ideas more clearly than 

do those that are seldom heard. 

(2) Concrete terms call up more definite ideas than 

do abstract. 

(3) Particular terms, likewise, are always more 

striking than general. 


Courtesy of Country Life 



67 
















68 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


b. In structure — 

(1) Of sentences. 

(2) Of paragraphs. 

(3) Of the plan of the discourse. 

The following sentence illustrates how obscurity arises: 

Seraphite, the marvellous creature, whose passage from Matter 
to Spirit, from the Specialist to the Divine conditions, the theme 
of Balzac’s genius, in this case is intended to typify the final function 
of a long course of steadfast upward working by a soul which has, 
by many re-incarnations, won its way past the instinctive and 
abstractive spheres of existence, and has at length attained that 
delicate balance of the material and spiritual which is the last possible 
manifestation on the earthly plane. 

2. Precision in the use of language. The thought must 
be fully and clearly grasped by the mind, and then words 
must be found that faithfully reproduce it. 

3. The employment of a definite and apparent plan or 
outline. The reader’s attention should be fixed upon some 
central thought or bold framework on which the entire 
structure is made to depend. One detail should lead 
naturally to the next. 

4. A skilful use of the various means of illustration. 
This may be — 

a. By example; as, “Exclusiveness is deadly. The exclusive 

in social life does not see that he excludes himself from 
enjoyment in the attempt to appropriate it.” 

b. By contrast; as, “Drawing lots would be a prudent and 

reasonable method of appointing the officers of state, 
compared to a late disposition of the secretary’s office.” 

c. By an anecdote or story; this has the advantage of the con¬ 

crete and of the particular. Thus: “Virtue is not without 
reward. Catherine of Livonia, a common peasant girl, 
attracted by her modest and virtuous conduct the attention 
of Peter the Great; became his wife; and, after his death, 
was proclaimed his successor in the Russian Empire.” 

d. By a parallel case; as, “I have seen eagles in a.eage; but 


THE WHOLE COMPOSITION 


69 


their wings showed me that nature never intended them 
to be there. So I have seen man covered with the leprosy 
of sin and moral disease; but his aspirations after good¬ 
ness told me that his Creator never designed him for the 
pesthouse. A nobler destiny is his.” 

<s. By a judicious use of the figures of speech, especially of 
simile, metaphor, and antithesis. 

/. By employing several of these methods in the same case. 
For example, in the following the idea is illustrated (1) by 
a contrast in the nature of the things; (2) by a contrast 
of their effects; (3) by figures. 

“Mirth I consider as an act; cheerfulness, as a habit of 
the mind. Mirth is short and transient; cheerfulness, 
fixed and permanent. Those are often raised into the 
greatest transports of mirth, who are subject to the greatest 
depression of melancholy. Mirth is like a flash of lightning 
that breaks through a gloom of clouds and glitters for a 
moment; cheerfulness keeps up a kind of daylight in the 
mind, and fills it with a steady and perpetual serenity.” 

5. The careful observance of the suggestions made 
under the head of sentence clearness. 


EXERCISE 

1. Is any sentence in the pupil theme vague, ambiguous, or 
hard to understand? 

2. Show how each paragraph is arranged. 

3. What illustrations are introduced? 

1. Cooperation with reservations. 

2. Advantage of speed. 

3. Correction of errors. 

Study .Alone Versus Study Together 

In the matter of home study I am in favor of cooperation with 
reservations. If two pupils decide to study together, everything is 
well unless they do some of the following: study mathematics; study 
together when one of the students is brilliant and the other’s ability 


70 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


is mediocre; study together when one has prepared the work and 
the other has done nothing; talk instead of studying. In mathe¬ 
matics it is practically impossible to work together because one does 
the work and the other copies it. If one student is brilliant, the 
other is more than likely to listen and not help. If one student has 
prepared everything, the other does nothing but appropriate the 
former’s ideas. 

In studying spelling and foreign languages, however, there are 
decided advantages in cooperation. If two study spelling together 
and each dictates the words to the other, both find out which words 
they need to study, whereas the pupil who studies alone spends most 
of his time on the words he knows how to spell. When two students 
of approximately the same ability study together a foreign language, 
both of them look up words at the same time, and in this manner 
they finish their lesson in approximately half the time. 

There is an old saying that two heads are better than one. This 
is illustrated in studying together. Many times one of two students 
will perceive a mistake which the other would not have noticed. If 
one studies with an earnest, intelligent student, his study is really 
supervised by a capable assistant teacher. 


PRACTICE 

School Subjects 

Write or speak clearly on one of these subjects. Say something. 

1. Why study English, Latin, mathematics, French, general 
science, stenography, history, typewriting, physics, chemistry, or 
another subject? 2. Why I like history, French, or any other 
subject. 3. A secretary’s report of a class in English, history, or 
some other subject. 4. What one learns from physical geography, 
biology, botany, or another subject. 5. Which high-school sub¬ 
jects are of most value? Why? 6. Is it better to study alone or 
with a classmate? 7. Helpful study rules. 8. Benefits derived 
from the physical-training work. 9. My faults in writing and 
speaking. 10. How to study a lesson in history, Latin, mathe¬ 
matics, or spelling. 11. Value of debating. 12. Why learn to 
draw? 13. The use of the outline. 14. How to plan a composition. 
15. Criticism of a paragraph or composition. 16. Comparative 
value of oral and written composition. 17. The value of supple- 


THE WHOLE COMPOSITION 


71 


mentary reading. 18. An interesting recitation. 19. How to 
write a good narration. 20. Why revise a composition after the 
first writing? 21. The practical value of physics. 22. Difficulties 
in learning French, Spanish, or another language. 

Force. Force, the quality or combination of qualities 
which causes discourse to make a deep impression on the 
mind, is known by a variety of terms, such as emphasis, 
strength, energy, vigor, vivacity, liveliness, animation, 
brilliancy, grandeur, and sublimity. 

1. In forceful discourse striking features or points have 
prominence, and details are kept in due subordination, or 
omitted. The important idea is put in an emphatic place 
and given more space or time than the less important. 
The end is the most emphatic position because final im¬ 
pressions last longest. The beginning is second in impor¬ 
tance because few people read articles that have dull 
beginnings. In a composition on The Qualities of a Success¬ 
ful Mining Engineer, for example, the most important 
topic moral qualities is placed last and given more space 
than any other topic. 

2. One source of force is the author’s vivid conception 
of the subject, accompanied by strong and deep emotion. 
As an example, take this definition of history, u History is 
a mighty drama, enacted upon the theater of time, with 
suns for lamps and eternity for a background.” 

3. Whatever contributes to clearness contributes like¬ 
wise to force. Hence simplicity, concreteness, and trans¬ 
parent clearness of arrangement are of vital importance. 

4. Force may be obtained by a repetition of the same 
thought in various forms or under various figures; as, 
“ How soon man is forgotten. History fades into fable; 
fact becomes clouded with doubt and controversy; the 
inscription moulders from the tablet; the statue falls from 
the pedestal.” 


72 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


EXERCISE 

1. Which of the two themes is more forceful? Why? 

2. Which has better sentence structure? Give examples. 

3. Which excels in word choice? Prove. 

1. A childhood experience. 

2. Reasons for giving to beggars. 

1. Giving to Beggars 

Because of a childhood experience my response to the request 
of a beggar has always been governed by my emotions. When I 
was a little girl, I often stayed with my grandmother, who lived 
alone. One morning, while we were eating breakfast, some one 
knocked at the kitchen door. A strong, well-dressed man stood there, 
and much to my surprise asked Grandmother for something to eat. 
He explained briefly that his unsuccessful quest for work had brought 
him to the verge of starvation. My soft heart instantly responded, 
but I recalled the conversation of my parents regarding the folly of 
encouraging able-bodied men in idleness, and I whispered to Grand¬ 
mother to tell him he might have something to eat if he would chop 
some wood. He at once went to the barn and began work. Grand¬ 
mother soon sent me out with a hot breakfast. The man was 
chopping with unnecessary vigor and haste, but, when he smelled 
the coffee, down went the ax, and for once in my life I saw a human 
being wolf down his food. 

The incident impressed me deeply. I like to have a mind at 
peace with itself. Several times I’ve hardened my heart and passed 
by a beggar, apparently blind and deaf to his appeal, but my sub¬ 
sequent regret and annoyance has always proved so disagreeable 
that I would rather give even to the detriment of the beggar than 
make myself uncomfortable. 

1. House-to-house beggars sometimes deserving. 

2. Street-corner beggars commonly impostors. 

3. Proper treatment of street-beggars. 

2. Giving to Beggars 

Very often, especially during the summer months, woe-begone 
individuals come to the door and very humbly ask, not for money, 


THE WHOLE COMPOSITION 73 

but for food. Some of these applicants are undoubtedly deserving 
of assistance and should be helped. 

The street-corner beggars are, however, an entirely different 
proposition. As a general rule, they are professional beggars and 
derive a good income from their business. They are quite likely to 
be extremely profane when passed by several people together who 
do not deposit any offering in the tin cup suggestively shaken before 
them. These beggars are, more often than not, rank impostors. 
This is illustrated by a supposedly blind street-beggar in Newark 
who struck with a cane a girl of my acquaintance and “hoped she’d 
get her nice new dress spoilt” because she did not give him any 
money. Cases very similar to this are often reported and prove 
that a great number of these supplicants are “fakers.” Moreover 
we often read in the paper of beggars who have died and left com¬ 
fortable fortunes gained without work. One New York beggar has 
a suite at a good hotel, owns an automobile, and employs a chauffeur. 

• For these reasons I consider the street-beggars parasites of the 
worst kind and do not believe in giving to them. Rather let them 
be locked up when found begging; and, if they prove to be really 
deserving, then let them be cared for at the institutions maintained 
by the taxpayers for this purpose. Surely their pride cannot be hurt 
by attendance at one of the public almshouses, and the general 
public will be greatly relieved. 

PRACTICE 

Manners and Ethics 

Write forcefully on one of these topics: 

1. Are the American people amusement-crazy? 2. What do 
we owe to our associates? 3. “The real issue is the eternal struggle 
between these two principles — right and wrong.” — Lincoln. 
Apply the quotation to conditions today. 4. An everyday hero 
— policeman, engineer, or laborer. 5. Responsibility of older 
students for the younger boys and girls of the school. 6. The 
essentials of good breeding. 7. How to form and how to break a 
habit. 8. Why some boys grow up selfish. 9. How to cultivate 
determination. 10. Relics of barbarism in school. 11. Pluck or 
pull. 12. What is liberty? 13. Is it sensible to make New Year’s 
resolutions? Why? 14. What is success? 15. The kind of boy 
or girl I admire. 16. What will people say? 17. Lending or 





74 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


borrowing homework. 18. Courtesy at home, on the playground, 
in the schoolroom, in the street car, in the theater, in the use of 
the telephone, at church, at the table, at a party, or while on a 
visit. 19. What is conscience? Is conscience always a safe guide? 
20. Is the Golden Rule a safe guide? 21. Honesty in sports. 
22. Value of good manners. 

Introduction. The palatial house has a large entrance 
hall; the small house, none or a tiny one. A long composi¬ 
tion needs a direct, interesting introduction to define 
terms, explain circumstances, state the proposition or 
subject to be discussed, or make clear the plan. A short 
composition may need an introductory sentence. A safe 
rule is to cross out the introduction if it doesn’t help the 
reader or hearer. 

Conclusion. The last paragraph is commonly a summary 
or enforcement of an important idea. It may be used to 
repeat the chief points, to remove doubts, to explain diffi¬ 
culties, to enlist sympathy, or to strengthen conviction. 
The last sentence should be so phrased that it will linger in 
the hearers’ minds. A brief speech or short written theme 
needs no conclusion or just a sentence to enforce the main 
point. Don’t feel that you must say something after you 
have said everything you have to say. 

$ 

EXERCISE 

Are these paragraphs poor, fair, good, or excellent? Why? 

Ship by Truck (600-word theme) 

Introductory Paragraph 

During the World War the auto truck was an important link in 
the chain that strangled German autocracy. It brought up the men 
and food for the men. It brought up the guns and food for the guns. 
It carried the wounded to the hospitals and brought back man-power 
to replace them. Economy! Endurance! Speed! Dependability! 
Such a record was established by the auto truck in the war. 


THE WHOLE COMPOSITION 


75 


Concluding Paragraph 

In conclusion, the truck supplies us with better food at a lower 
cost with greater profit to the farmer producing it. The motor 
hauls our goods more cheaply than the railroad and saves the energy 
expended in loading and unloading. It can be depended upon in 
emergencies. In truth, it is the servant of mankind. 

Play (500-word theme) 

Introductory Paragraph 

If we crept up behind a fox’s or a coyote’s den without being 
seen or heard, we would see the young animals frisking about, jump¬ 
ing over one another, playfully biting each other’s ears, or fighting 
over a morsel of meat. We might see them pretending to stalk a 
rabbit or a partridge. But we would notice that their play always 
seemed to imitate the actions of the adult. 

CRITICISM OF SIX THEMES 

1. Point out detailed errors: grammar, spelling, word choice, 
capitalization, punctuation, idiom, sentence structure. 

2. What is the topic of each paragraph? Discuss the unity, 
arrangement, connectives, and force of each paragraph. 

3. Which paragraphs need additional details, illustrations, 
examples, comparisons, or reasons? Which are well developed? 

4. Discuss the unity, arrangement, connectives, clearness, and 
force of the whole composition. 

5. Which compositions have inviting opening sentences and 
vigorous closing sentences? 

6. Does the writer say something, or use words to conceal the 
fact that he has nothing to say? 

7. What is an outstanding merit or defect of each composition? 

8. Which of the themes are complete failures? Why? 

1. Rabbit-hunting 

Rabbit-hunting is fine sport. It is not dangerous, except from the 
point of view of carelessness with firearms, but it gives one a feeling 
of savage delight in being in the great outdoors, climbing the snow- 


76 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


covered hills, and breaking through the brush and brambles in search 
of those elusive members of the rat family. With faces and hands 
tingling with the cold, nostrils distended to breathe the pure winter 
air, and ears wide to the deep musical baying of the hounds, who 
can find happier or more thrilling moments than these? And, 
returning from a successful hunt, who can imagine a pleasanter 
anticipation than that of looking forward to a smoking, savory rabbit 
stew cooked in the good old American way? Now for the equip¬ 
ment! Any old clothes will do, as the rabbits are not particular and 
the brambles are very thick. Of course, if you are one of the idle 
rich, or if your father is a banker or broker, you may indulge in a 
finer costume. The best gun for the purpose is a double-barreled 
shotgun. A twenty-two calibre gun may also be used but not with 
the best results. Scatter-shot is the best kind of ammunition to 
use unless you are a crack shot. If you have a hunting dog, you 
are lucky, but you can do without one. In hunting, the dog is used 
to scare the rabbits out of their hiding-places. The dog does all the 
work and you shoot the rabbits, but if there is no dog, make as much 
noise yourself as you can. Jump on every brush pile, and poke 
around in every hole. If a rabbit is started, leave some one near 
the starting-point, as a rabbit is said to run in a circle. When going 
out, do not load your gun till you are well out in the woods, and 
cock it only when you are about to fire. 

This kind of outdoor exercise is very beneficial and has many 
advantages. It refreshes your mind, especially if you live in the 
city. It strengthens the nerves and muscles, trains the eye and hand, 
and works up an appetite. If you are a successful hunter, you will 
be able to pay all expenses and make a profit besides. 

2. Qualities of a Gentleman 

Not every well-dressed man is a gentleman. I was convinced of 
this fact by the following incident. One day about six o’clock I 
was waiting for a Flushing Avenue car. It was the rush hour, and 
all the men and women were going home from business. A car soon 
came along, and every one hurried to board it. In the crowd was 
a feeble old woman, hemmed in by three or four men. One of these 
was a poor, hard-working man with an old blouse and jacket, pants 
of a different color from his coat, and torn, worn-out shoes. Another 
was a good-looking young man with a clean-shaven face, white hands, 
with a diamond ring on one finger, a suit that fitted perfectly, and 
a pair of newly-polished shoes. The lady and these two men got 


THE WHOLE COMPOSITION 


77 


lo the car at the same time. Before the woman could get on, the 
young dandy was in front of her, and boarded the. car. The other 
man helped the lady to get on and then he jumped on the car. This 
showed that although the young man was handsomely dressed, he 
did not have the politeness that the shabbily dressed man possessed. 
Whether a man is well dressed or badly dressed, he is not a gentleman 
unless he is polite, considerate, well bred, and honorable. 

3. Devices to Make Housekeeping Easier 

One of the most helpful devices to make housekeeping easier is 
the fireless cooker. There are many types, but the kind most in 
use is the “Rapid.” This cooker is about four feet long and two 
feet wide. The outside is covered with a tin-like substance, painted 
to represent oak. The interior is aluminum lined and divided into 
three compartments which contain four-quart aluminum kettles, 
and there is one compartment to hold an eight-quart kettle. These 
partitions are closed by air-tight covers about three inches thick. 
Lastly, there is a cover which closes down just like the cover of a 
cedar chest over the whole top of the cooker. 

The whole cooker may look very insignificant, but is very useful. 
To boil food, one goes through the usual preparations, eventually 
placing the prepared food in one of the kettles with a sufficient 
supply of water. Then place the kettle on the stove just long enough 
for the water covering the contents to boil. Next remove the kettle, 
holding it by the handle prepared, to its compartment in the fireless. 
Leave the food in the fireless cooker about the same length of time 
one would leave it on the stove. However, your food will not burn 
in the fireless, even if kept there for a longer time. To bake or 
roast there are round, flat irons provided with the cooker. These 
irons are lifted from the stove with a long iron handle, and placed 
in the fireless. One iron must be placed over the kettle containing 
the food, and the other underneath the kettle. The invention will 
save you much time and labor. It absolutely avoids burning, and 
for cereals it is the ideal mode of preparation. 

4. Rules for Training for a Baseball Team 

A baseball team consists of nine regulars and several substitutes. 
These men must have the following qualifications. Each man must 
have a certificate from the doctor showing the qualification and that 
is. He has been examined and found to be a clean-cut man as he 


78 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


would call it. To be a clean-cut man is to have good habits, not 
to smoke, not to drink, and above all to be honest and true to your 
friends and neighbors. 

This is only one side of the story. The other is that he must be 
educated and also be a game sport. By having all these qualities, 
an American fellow cannot help being a good athlete and also one 
who is always ready on the job. If you are always ready on the 
job you will find that it is the motto of the one who is training you 
for your future not only in baseball but also in all undertakings 
that you are about to go in the future. 

5. How Yeast Does Its Work 

Yeast is a plant which needs warmth, air and moisture for its 
growth, but is killed by an excess of heat or cold. Anything too 
warm for the hand is too warm for the yeast, and anything which 
chills the yeast, will stop its growth. For these reasons all liquids 
should be luke warm, and the flour also should be warmed in cold 
weather. 

Whenever possible, keep yeast in the refrigerator, placing it where 
it will be dry as well as cold. 

The yeast may discolor at times, but this does not in any way 
affect its quality. If it is firm, it is in good condition, if too soft to 
handle, it must not be used. 

The yeast begins to rise when it begins to ferment. Sugar assists 
the fermentation. 

6. How to Take Care of a Furnace 

Before starting the fire in a furnace, clean it out thoroughly. 
Then fill the boiler with water. 

Then put some paper and wood in the fire pit and open all drafts. 
Set it on fire, and after a few pieces of wood catch fire add some 
heavier wood. 

When the wood has a good flame, add a few shovels of coal and 
close the door. 

About an hour later go down and shut off the drafts. 

At noon go down and open the drafts and shake the grate until 
all of the ashes are out of the fire pit. After this is done, take the 
ashes out of the ash pit. 

Before going to bed at night, bank the furnace by putting a few 
shovels of coal and a little ashes on the fire and opening the side 
door to cut the draft off entirely. 


THE WHOLE COMPOSITION 


79 


Teaching an Elephant to Stand on his Head 

In teaching elephants to do various tricks and acts, the first 
and principal thing to accomplish is to make them understand clearly 
what you want and to associate that particular action with a certain 
command or cue. Once the big fellows grasp your meaning it is 
seldom that they will deliberately refuse to do what you wish them 
to. In fact, the more intelligent ones seem to take a certain pride 
in doing their stunts. It will be readily seen, however, that it is 
a problem not entirely free from perplexities to discover ways to 
make an elephant understand what you are talking about when, 
for instance, you ask him to stand on his head. 

My method of doing this was to stand him facing a high, strong 
brick wall with his front feet securely fastened to a couple of stakes 
driven in the ground. A heavy rope sling was put round his hind¬ 
quarters and from this a rope was run up to and over a pulley high 
above him on the wall, then down through a snatch block near the 
ground and the end fastened to a harness on another elephant. 
When all was ready I would take my place by him, strike him in the 
flank and say, “Stand on your head.” At the same time an assistant 
would start up the other elephant and draw the pupil’s hindquarters 
up until he stood squarely on his head. The wall kept him from 
going over forward. After a moment or two I would tell him to 
get down. The assistant would slack off on the rope and let him 
settle back onto his feet. Then I would give him a carrot, or some¬ 
thing of the kind. I did this two or three times every morning and 
afternoon and it was not long before it was possible to do away with 
the rigging and at the word of command he would put his head 
down and throw his hindquarters into the air. Of course the longer 
he practiced the more easily and surely he did it. — George Conklin, 
The Ways of the Circus. 


PRACTICE 

Write or speak about an animal and on a historical subject. 
Attend to unity, arrangement, connectives, clearness, and force. Is 
your purpose to entertain, inform, convince, or move to action? 

Animals 

1. An animal story — elephant, cat, dog, squirrel, rabbit. 2. An 
experience in the zoo. 3. How a brave dog helped to win a battle. 
4. Kindness to animals. 5. Pets that I have had. 6. Boy saved 


80 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


by his dog. 7. How I taught my dog a trick. 8. The most intelli¬ 
gent animal I know. 9. Should dogs on the street be muzzled? 
10. How a cat cares for her kittens. 11. How to care for a puppy, 
rabbit, horse, cow, or other animal. 12. A hunting experience. 
13. How to bathe a dog. 14. How to break a colt. 15. Traits, 



Courtesy of the American Museum of Natural History 
Gray Wolves 


habits, and habitat of the animal that I have observed most 
carefully. 16. A trick I played on the dog. 17. An animal I 
saw in the movies. 


History 

1. The education of boys and girls in Sparta. 2. Some influences 
of Magna Charta upon English history. 3. The Reform Bill of 
1832 — its provisions and importance in English history. 4. The 
feudal system. 5. Some influences of the Norman conquest on 
the English people. 6. Why Oliver Cromwell succeeded. 7. Coffee 
houses. 8. Guilds. 9. A medieval town. 10. Charlemagne as 
a ruler. 11. My favorite hero of the Great War. 12. A story of 





THE WHOLE COMPOSITION 


81 


the Great War. 13. The story of the American flag. 14. The 
greatest character in American history since 1800. 15. A story 

from the life of a great American. 16. The importance of the 
Monroe Doctrine. 17. The life of an Indian. 18. The importance 
of the Saratoga campaign in the Revolutionary War. 19. The 
importance of the'possession of the Mississippi in the Civil War. 
20. Washington’s attitude towards foreign alliances. 21. An 
invention — cotton gin, biplane, telephone, steamboat. 22. A 
point of historical interest I have visited and its history. 23. A 

southern plantation in colonial days. 24. Why I consider-our 

greatest president. 25. Causes of the Revolutionary War. 
26. The history of Thanksgiving Day, the Fourth of July, or 
Memorial Day. 27. Some services rendered to this country by 
Alexander Hamilton or Thomas Jefferson. 28. What I admire in 
Washington or Lincoln. 29. The importance of the Panama 
Canal. 30. Causes of international strife. 



CHAPTER VI 


EXPLANATION 

Why learn to explain? One purpose of speech is instruc¬ 
tion. The teacher explains to his pupils; the coach, to 
his team; the foreman, to his men; the manager, to his 
department heads; the salesman, to his customer; the 
farmer, to his workman; the physician, to his patient. 
The engineer who can’t explain the advantages of his plans 
may have a city council, board, or committee reject them 
for poorer plans the strong points of which are made clear. 
A salesman may know his goods perfectly and have the 
best on the market and yet fail to sell because he can’t 
make clear their superiority. So a teacher may know how 
to solve a problem and yet fail to make the solution clear 
to the class. 

How to Explain 

1. Know the subject thoroughly. You can’t explain a 
subject that is somewhat hazy in your own mind. 

2. Since to explain means to make plain or clear, it is 
important to discover what in the explanation is likely to be 
confusing, and make this point so clear that the reader or 
hearer must understand. In the solution of a problem, 
for example, decide at what point pupils are most likely to 
stumble, then clearly indicate the exact steps to be taken, 
and hang a red danger sign on each stumbling block. In 
the explanation of what repair work a painter, carpenter, 
plumber, mason, or electrician is to do in the house, think 
what in the instructions he might misunderstand and make 
this point crystal clear. The explanation is a failure unless 

82 


EXPLANATION 


83 


he understands. Hence use the details, illustrations, or 
comparisons that will make the subject clear to the par¬ 
ticular people to whom you are talking or writing. Explain¬ 
ing to one of the boys the ninth-inning first-baseman’s 
error that lost the .game is quite different from making your 
grandmother understand. An explanation of the Battle 
of the Marne to a group of military experts would probably 
be unintelligible to a high-school boy in the audience. On 
the other hand, the explanation to a high-school class 
would not instruct a military expert. 

3. Explain completely. If an explanation of handball 
omits one necessary direction, it is worthless. 


EXERCISE 

Show that this explanation is incomplete: 

Construction and Operation of a Mousetrap 

A mousetrap consists of a round piece of wood and some wire. 
Around the wood are five or six little holes. In these little holes 
is placed some meat on the end of a piece of wire. The trap is then 
set. When the mouse grabs the meat in its mouth, it pulls the wire 
also, .and the hole in the trap closes up with the mouse’s head in it. 
The mouse is then taken out and the trap is set to catch another one. 

4. Arrange facts and ideas sensibly. Lead the reader or 
hearer, step by step, from what he knows to related facts 
or ideas that you wish to make clear to him. In explanation 
of processes, making bread, washing dishes, manufacturing 
hats, or building a house, for example, arrange the details 
in the time order. 

5. Use connective words to show the relation between the 
parts of the explanation. If the parts are not linked together, 
the explanation seems disjointed. 

6. Fit your vocabulary to your audience or readers. Sub¬ 
stitute a simple word for a word that will not be under¬ 
stood. 


84 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


7. Go straight to the point. Avoid unnecessary words 
and roundabout expressions. 

8. Use an illustration or blackboard diagram if it makes 
the subject clearer. In directing an automobilist on a route 
that has many curves and corners, diagram the route; 
appeal to both eye and ear. 

9. The five common methods of explanation are details, 
examples, comparison or contrast, cause and effect, and 
repetition. Decide which of these best suits your purpose. 
In explaining how to mimeograph, it is necessary to make 
clear such details as cutting the stencil, putting the stencil 
on the mimeograph, applying the ink, and running off the 
copies needed. To explain the present importance of 
cavalry warfare, one might give examples of its use in the 
World War; compare or contrast the usefulness of the 
cavalry and the infantry, artillery, or aviation; or compare 
or contrast the use of cavalry in modern warfare with the 
use fifty, a hundred, or a thousand years ago. A discussion 
of the causes that have made cavalry more or less necessary 
in an army would throw light on the subject. In a speech 
on the subject repetition of ideas in different words might 
be necessary to make important points clear. 


EXERCISE 


Is the explanation of the snow auto clear? Is a diagram 
needed? 


A Snow Auto 


A pair of broad tractor wheels, a heavy toboggan, and a popular 
low-priced automobile have proved to be a combination that will 
make motoring an all-year-round possibility in and near Nome, 
Alaska. The first step in the conversion of the car to its winter 
form is the dismounting of the four wheels. For the driving wheels 
are substituted the broad tractor wheels; then the front wheels are 
replaced by the toboggan, which is linked to the steering column. 
Auxiliary runners finally are bolted to the sides of the frame. Thus 


EXPLANATION 


85 


adapted to cold-weather use, the car makes ten to fifteen miles an 
hour. It keeps well on the surface, too, in all but the softest snows. 
— Popular Mechanics. 


The* Electric Bell 


The electric bell is a practical application of the principle of the 
electromagnet. The hammer H is connected with the armature A. 
The armature, in turn, is 
connected by a spring IS with 
the screw contact at B. When 
the circuit is closed by press- p 
ing the button P, the electro¬ 
magnet attracts the armature 
and causes the hammer to 
strike the bell. But, as. the 
armature moves towards the electromagnet, the contact at B is 
broken, and the circuit is also broken. Consequently, the electro¬ 
magnet loses its magnetism, and the armature is forced back by the 
spring to touch B again. As soon as it touches B , the current flows 
and the armature is again attracted. This process is continually 
repeated while the push button is being pressed down. The action 
of the armature is so rapid that it is often difficult to distinguish 
the different blows of the hammer on the bell. 



TO BATTERIES 


PRACTICE 

A Machine 

Explain the construction and operation of one of the following 
machines. Make absolutely clear how the machine does its work. 
A diagram may help you. 

1. A grindstone. 2. A letter press. 3. A compass. 4. A mouse¬ 
trap. 5. An ash sifter. 6. A fountain pen. 7. A spirit level- 
8. A Stillson wrench. 9. A thermometer. 10. A hectograph. 
11. A monkey wrench. 12. A lamp. 13. A vacuum cleaner. 
14. A carpet sweeper. 15. A coaster brake. 16. A washing 
machine. 17. A phonograph. 18. A dictaphone. 19. A mimeo¬ 
graph. 20. A carburetor. 21. A bicycle pump. 22. A meat 
sheer. 23. A coffee grinder. 24. A barometer. 25. A thermostat. 
26. A milking machine. 27. A wringer. 28. An ice-cream freezer. 

























86 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 

29. A filter. 30. A dirigible. 31. A windmill. 32. A trench peri¬ 
scope. 33. A multigraph. 34. A steam shovel. 35. A recent 
invention. 36. A useful machine. 


Rowing a Boat 

When you get into a boat step squarely into the middle of it 
and sit in the center of your seat, so as to properly trim the boat. 
Good oars are equipped with bands of leather round the part that 




I. The catch or beginning of the 
stroke. 


II. The beginning of the shoot or 
recovery. 



should rest in the rowlocks. Slide the oars out into the rowlocks 
as far as the leather pieces permit. On some oars there is an extra 
strip of leather, called a ‘ l button,” that prevents them from sliding 
out any farther. If there are no buttons on your oars you will have 
to handle them carefully until you have trained yourself to adjust 
them properly. You cannot manage them well if you have too 
much of their length outside the rowlocks. They should balance 
easily, with the weight almost evenly divided between the outside 
and the inside of the boat. Brace your feet firmly against the cleat, 
which should be close enough to cause your knees to bend slightly 






































EXPLANATION 


87 


when your feet are on it, and keep your body erect, with your chest 
expanded and your head up. Grasp your oars firmly about two 
inches from the end of the handles and let the blades rest flat on 
the water. 

The standard rowboat stroke is divided into four parts: the catch, 
the pull-through, the finish, and the shoot. In preparation for the 
catch, turn your oars without changing the grip so that the blades 
stand perpendicular to the water. Bend forward from the hips, but 
keep your spine straight, and at the same time carry the oars back 
as far as you can. Now drop them into the -water just far enough 
to cover the blades. As the blades catch the water, exert the strength 
of your back and shoulders as well as the strength of your arms. 

The pull-through begins at that point. Pull slowly at first, always 
remembering to keep the blades just covered and squarely at right 
angles to the surface of the water. Quicken your pull as your body 
nears the end of its backward swing, and complete the pull-through 
with the finish — a quick, powerful jerk of the oars that brings your 
hands close to your body and the oars smartly out of the water. 
The finish is what gives the boat momentum. You will naturally 
bend your arms and draw the oar handles in close to your body as 
you execute that part of the stroke. It is quite correct to do that, 
but you must hold your hack straight, for it is incorrect and awkward, 
as well as physically harmful, to double up over the oars and to 
round your back. It makes rowing no easier, and it tends to defeat 
the purpose of rowing as an exercise. 

The finish should bring the oar blades out just enough to clear 
the surface of the water. The instant they are clear, drop the wrist 
easily to turn the oar blades up so that they are almost horizontal, 
— parallel to the surface of the water, — and then carry the blades 
swiftly back, holding them just above the water, to the catch. The 
backward swing is the shoot. When you reach the catch position, 
again don’t delay: drop immediately into the next stroke without 
any additional lifting motion- except to raise the wrists and so let 
the oar blades cleave the water in an easy downward curve. The 
action of moving the wrist so as to make the oar blades parallel 
with the water is known as feathering. Since the value of feathering 
is that it carries the blades back with least resistance, it is particu¬ 
larly useful in a strong wind. The oars should enter the water with 
very little effort on your part, but more effort should come as soon 
as they are in. Skying,” that is, lifting the oars too high, and 
“digging,” which means dipping them too deep, are two very common 
faults. — The Youth’s Companion. 


88 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


1. Felling the tree. 

2. Cutting the tree into firewood. 

How to Fell a Tree and Cut 
it into Firewood 

When you need firewood, select a dead tree 
not more than two feet in diameter. Carefully 
take the lay of the land and choose the cleanest 
space in which to fell the tree. On this side cut 
a notch similar to number 1 in diagram I, and 
after this one has been completed, chop another 
notch similar to number 2 in diagram I, on the 
opposite side, going dowm to meet the first notch. 
Watch carefully as the second notch is cut, for 
I the tree falls before the two notches meet. Keep 

away from the tree as it falls so as not to be hit by the branches. 

In reducing the log to firewood, 
if you can roll it, chop two V- 
shaped notches, as shown in notch 
1, diagram II, on opposite sides 
of the log until they meet. If 
the log is unwieldy, use the method 
shown in number 2, of chopping one large V-shaped notch until the 
log gives way. Always work in such a position that in case of a 
slip you will not chop your feet or legs. 




Notch 2 


_oh.1 


PRACTICE 

How to do Something 

Explain one of the following so clearly that every one in the class 
will understand. Plan before writing-. Apply the nine exposition 
rules. 

1. How to raise sweet peas, asters, dahlias, peonies, pansies, 
gladioli, asparagus, cabbage, cucumbers, onions, beans, carrots, 
celery, sweet corn, head lettuce, musk melons, peppers, rhubarb, 
or tomatoes. 2. How to set up a wireless station. 3. How to 
catch trout. 4. How to toast marshmallows. 5. How to sweep 
a room. 6. How to pitch a tent. 7. How to put on an automobile 
tire. 8. How to sharpen a knife. 9. How to patch a bicycle tire. 


























EXPLANATION 


89 


10 . How to mark out a tennis court or football field. II. How to 
teach a baby to walk. 12. How to select a camp site. 13. How 
to get a field ready for baseball games. 14. How to learn to swim. 
15. How to read the electric meter. 16. How to build a furnace 
fire. 17. How to paddle a canoe. 18. How to plan a vegetable 
garden. 19. How to ride a horse. 20. How to buy a dress or 
suit of clothes. 21. How to trim a hat. 22. How to take a 
picture. 23. How to build a camp fire. 24. How to sail a boat. 
25. How to climb a tree. 26. How to catalog a small library. 
27. How to pack a trunk. 28. How to improve the soil of a 
garden. 29. How to pick cherries or apples. 30. How to remove 
stains. 31. How to prepare a camp-fire dinner. 32. How to use 
the Readers’ Guide. 33. How to wash lace. 34. How to change 
the oil in the crankcase. 35. How to protect trees from pests. 
36. How to plan a class party. 37. How to row a boat. 38. How 
to do up a package for mailing. 39. How to cover a book. 
40. How to make a swan dive. 


How to Build a Lean-to 

When you decide to build a lean-to, select the site with care. If 
sloping land can be found, choose the top of the slope as the site, 
for in case of rain the water m 

will run down, and the ground AU-ro¬ 

under the lean-to will be 
practically dry. On this slope 
select two strong trees about 
ten feet apart. Eight feet from 
the foot of these trees, facing 
down hill, nail a heavy cross¬ 
bar to the trees. In the ground 
seven feet from the foot of 
each tree make a hole a foot 
wide and two feet deep. Into 

each of these holes place a heavy beam twelve and a half feet 
long, so that the beams lean against the trees just under the 
crossbar and tight against it. -These beams should be parallel. 
Then make a third hole on a line with the other holes, and just 
midway between them* Into this hole place another heavy beam, 
so that it leans against the crossbar midway between the two 



















90 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


trees. This third piece should be parallel with the other two 
slanting beams. Nail these beams securely against their supports. 
About a third of the way down on these slanting pieces, and parallel 
with the original crossbeam, nail another crossbeam ten feet in 
length. Another third of the way down nail another crossbeam. 
Then on top of the crossbeams and leaning beams pile brush and 
branches so as to cover completely the space between the supports. 

PRACTICE 

How to Make or Build Something 

If you decide to explain how to build a birdhouse, assume that 
every member of the class is planning to build such a house but knows 
nothing about birdhouses and little about carpentry. Your exposition 
will be successfid if it is a clear and complete guide. A diagram 
saves words and makes plain. 

1. A cold frame. 2. A hotbed. 3. A fireless cooker. 4. A 
kite. 5. A model aeroplane. 6. A boat. 7. A microphone. 8. A 
lamp shade. 9. Popcorn balls. 10. A log cabin. 11. Coffee. 
12. A willow whistle. 13. An apron. 14. A pinhole camera. 
15. A raft. 16. Bread. 17. A school dress. 18. A camp bed. 
19. A magic lantern. 20. A bookcase. 21. A workbench. 22. A 
dog house. 23. A chicken coop. 24. An inexpensive garage. 
25. A snow fort. 26. A picture frame. 27. A birdhouse. 28. A 
shirt waist. 29. A shelter in the woods. 30. A table. 31. A dye. 
32. A radio set. 33. Jumping standards. 34. A pair of stilts. 
35. A sweater. 36. A kite. 


Vacuum Cleaner 

Your cleaning results will depend largely on the care you give 
your cleaner, for a cleaner in poor condition will not do its work 
efficiently. Vacuum cleaners, like any other machine, no matter 
how skilfully designed or how painstakingly constructed, will eventu¬ 
ally wear out, if not properly cared for. Oil them at least once a 
month. Another safeguard is to .care for the cord intelligently. 
Remember that it is not merely a cord, but that it houses the wires 
that transmit the power necessary to operate the machine, and that 
knotting this cord or any excessive wear on any portion of it will 


EXPLANATION 


91 


most certainly shorten its life and affect the usefulness of the ma¬ 
chine. Don’t let your bag become partially filled before you think 
of cleaning it. You will find that the cleaner will do its best work 
if the bag contents are emptied after each using. This is important 
for two reasons. If the dust is allowed to collect in the dust bag to 
any considerable extent, it puts more work upon the motor and thus 
tends to wear it out. Then, too, the dust bag opening is apt to 
become clogged, thus hindering the free passage of dust through it, 
and finally the bag itself becomes packed with the dust particles, 
and when the air is prevented from passing freely through to the 
bag, the cleaning power of the machine is impaired. There need be 
no scattering of dust when the bag of the vacuum cleaner is emptied, 
if a newspaper is spread out to catch the dirt, and the bag, steadied 
by a foot on either side, is held collar down upon it. When dust 
comes through the dust bag during operation, it is a direct indica¬ 
tion that the bag is too full. 

For the same reason that you avoid nails and pieces of glass when 
driving your automobile, you should avoid bits of wood and the 
like when using your cleaner. Such things as these, which might 
tend to pierce or cut the bag, will in time show their effect — so 
watch ahead! The impression that cleaners can be used for picking 
up pins, nails, etc., has probably been made by the dealers in demon¬ 
strating the efficiency of their cleaners. Without a doubt a strong 
enough suction will take up these things, but is it the best treatment 
for your bag? — Good Housekeeping. 

PRACTICE 

How to Care for Something 

Explain how to take care of one of the following. Millions of 
dollars are wasted every year because people don’t know how to care 
for what they have. Apply the nine exposition rules. 

1. A typewriter. 2. A victrola. 3. A washing machine. 4. An 
automobile. 5. A stove. 6. Hardwood floors. 7. A mimeograph. 
8. A lawn. 9. An apple tree. 10. A grape vine. 11. A shade tree. 
12. A furnace. 13. A fountain pen. 14. A tennis court. 15. A 
paint brush. 16. A bicycle. 17. A piano. 18. A refrigerator. 
19. A suit or dress. 20. A pair of shoes. 21. A book. 22. Ever¬ 
greens. 23. Rugs. 24. Window screens. 25. A gas engine. 
26. A cream separator. 27. A binder. 28. A lawn mower. 


92 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 

29. An electric stove. 30. A carpet sweeper. 31. Aluminum 
ware. 32. Silverware. 33. Linoleum. 34. A sewing machine. 
35. A new labor-saving device. 

Trench Wrestle 

The players are formed in two lines facing each other. Goal lines 
are fixed about fifteen feet to the rear of each line. At the signal 
“Go!” each player attempts to pull an opponent back to his goal 
line. An opponent pulled across the goal is a prisoner and is out of 
the game. Not more than two men may attack an opponent. Players 
must be grasped by the wrist or hand only. Pushing may be allowed, 
but the hands must not be placed below the shoulders. At the end 
of five minutes, the side having the greater number of prisoners, 
or players left, wins. 

PRACTICE 

A Game 

* "• 1 ; : f 

Select one of the following games or any other game with simple 
rules and explain it so that every member of the class will be able to 
play it. A complete explanation of football, baseball, or basketball 
is matter for a book, not for a short composition. 

1. Chess. 2. Checkers. 3. Handball. 4. Croquet. 5. Bowl¬ 
ing. 6. Dominoes. 7. Charades. 8. Hockey. 9. Golf. 10. Leap¬ 
frog. 11. Captain ball. 12. Tennis. 13. Cross tag. 14. Tug 
of war. 15. Hand wrestle. 16. Fox and chickens. 17. Indian 
.circle pull. 18. Centipede race. 19. Rooster fight. 20. Potato 
race. 21. Three deep. 22. Swat to the right. 23. Pulling 
for hat. 24. Bull in the ring. 25. “O’Grady says.” 26. Pick- 
a-back relay. 

•' v * ■ ’ * .* r v - : \•„ > 

Explain one of these: 

1. How to play first base, quarter back, center (basketball), or 
any other position on a team. 2. How a man is put out in base¬ 
ball. 3. How the ball is advanced in football. 4. How points 
are scored in basketball. 5.- Qualities needed in a football, 
baseball, or basketball captain. 6. The best game for high-school 
boys or girls. Why? 


EXPLANATION 


93 


PRACTICE 

Direction 

Explain to the class how to reach a railroad station, library, 
woods, daisy field, skating pond, theater, park, bank, store, 
athletic field, gymnasium, camp, factory, town, or city. 

Make your problem fairly difficult by explaining a rather com¬ 
plicated journey. Don’t be satisfied with your exposition until 
it is so clear that a pupil who grasps things very slowly will be 
able to reach the point without once inquiring the way. 

EXERCISE 

How many illustrations are used in explaining the meaning of 
gink? in explaining the difference between constancy and consistency? 

What is a Gink ? 

There are terms in all languages for stupid, dull people and for 
egotists, terms usually borrowed from the lower animals, as donkey, 
goose, owl, pig, mutton head, and the like; but for the peculiar 
combination of cantankerousness and cussedness found in the kind 
of people I have in mind there is no word; so we have to invent one. 
Hence, Gink. It is absurd, irritating, impossible; consequently it 
is suitable. 

A Gink is a person who does not consider human values. Any¬ 
thing weighs more with such a one than being obliging. A Gink is 
often polite; then he is meanest. To him a rule, or a custom, or 
number, or any dead thing is of more value than a human being. 

Keep track of the Ginks of all kinds you meet during the day, 
and then make a calculation of the enormous human energy con¬ 
sumed by encountering these clods on the social and business highway. 

The janitor will not sweep up the litter on the back porchway, 
which you made by opening a box that came today, because this is 
Saturday, and he sweeps only Fridays. 

Then there’s the business man who keeps you waiting fifteen 
minutes while he finishes his cigar, so that you will think he is 
rushed with important affairs. 

And don’t overlook the physician who is discussing baseball in 
his private office with an acquaintance while half a dozen suffering 
patients are sitting funereally in his waiting room. But wffien you 


94 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 

most desire to brain the said physician is the time when he stands 
around and quibbles over a point of professional etiquette or ethics 
of the profession” while your child is sick unto death in the other 
room. 

To the Ancient and Dishonorable Order of Ginks belong also the 
officers of institutions who observe all kinds of red tape while people 
are in need or in peril. 

Some day you want a check cashed in a hurry. You go to the 
bank, stand in line at the paying teller’s window, and finally in 
your turn present your paper. The teller looks at it. Then some 
clerk in the next cage speaks to him. He goes away and converses 
pleasantly with his fellow clerk while you wait on pins and needles. 
When he is done talking, he returns, and after inspecting his finger 
nails slowly counts you out your money. 

A woman of my acquaintance, my wife, to be exact, once woke 
one of these Bank Ginks up. She had received her money and 
stepped aside. Counting it she saw that the Clerk had made an 
error. 

“Excuse me,” she said, “you made a mistake in giving me my 
money.” 

“You’ll have to fall in line, ma’am,” said a policeman. 

And the clerk said, “We never rectify mistakes after the money 
has been taken from the window.” 

“Very well,” was her reply. “Only you gave me $10 too much! ” 

That was different. Clerk Gink and Policeman Gink immediately 
climbed down from their high perches and became human and cour¬ 
teous. They allowed her, kindly, to rectify the error. — Frank Crane. 

Constancy is More Than Consistency 

I think that you have misunderstood the Outlook. But I am not 
concerned to prove that it has been consistent. I agree with Ralph 
Waldo Emerson that “with consistency a great soul has simply 
nothing to do.” Constancy is always a virtue; consistency is some¬ 
times a vice. In order to be constant to his purpose one may often 
be, in seeming if not in reality, inconsistent in his conduct. Thus in 
chess one at first takes every pains to save his queen and later 
deliberately sacrifices her, but is always constant to his purpose to 
checkmate his opponent; thus a ship constant in its aim to reach a 
given harbor sometimes sails directly away from it in beating against 
an adverse wind; thus Abraham Lincoln was constant to his purpose 
to secure “liberty and union, one and inseparable,” but not consistent 


EXPLANATION 


95 


in his methods. When the New England abolitionists proposed to 
withdraw from the Union to get rid of responsibility for slavery, he 
opposed abolition; and he affirmed repeatedly that he did not pro¬ 
pose to interfere with slavery in the Slave States. — The Outlook. 


PRACTICE 

A Term 

Explain one of the following terms. Use a number of illustrations. 
Which of the nine rules have you appliedf 

1. Patriotism. 2. Snob. 3. Hero. 4. Courage. 5. Tariff for 
revenue only. 6. Protective tariff. 7. Grange. 8. Labor union. 
9. Propaganda. 10. Profiteering. 11. Radical. 12. Conservative. 
13. Progressive. 14. Trust. 15. Initiative and referendum. 

16. Recall. 17. Self-determination. 18. Socialism. 19. Democ¬ 
racy. 20. Americanization. 21. Autocracy. 22. Honor. 
23. School spirit. 24. Moral courage. 25. Grit. 26. Soviet 
government. 27. Social welfare. 28. Drama. 29. Essay. 
30. Integrity. 31. Collective bargaining. 32. Open shop. 
33. Fair wage. 

PRACTICE 

A Proverb 

Explain and illustrate one of these proverbs: 

1. A stitch in time saves nine. 2. Much cry, little wool. 
3. A rolling stone gathers no moss. 4. Let sleeping dogs lie. 
5. Nothing venture, nothing have. 6. Waste not, want not. 
7. Every dog has his day. 8. It never rains but it pours. 9. An 
ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure. 10. A little learn¬ 
ing is a dangerous thing. 11. Molasses catches more flies than 
vinegar. 12. All that glitters is not gold. 13. Honesty is the 
best policy. 14. Not every well-dressed man is a gentleman. 
15. Too many cooks spoil the broth. 16. Seeing is believing. 

17. Birds of a feather flock together. 18. A merry heart doeth 
good like medicine. 19. He laughs best who laughs last. 20. Make 
hay while the sun shines. 21. Procrastination is the thief of 
time. 22. Haste makes waste. 23. Penny wise, pound foolish. 


96 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 

24. Still water runs deep. 25. The empty vessel makes the loud¬ 
est noise. 

PRACTICE 

A Cartoon 

Describe a cartoon and explain what it means. Make the 
description so vivid that every pupil will see the cartoon and the 
explanation so clear that a pupil who is stupid about cartoons 
must see the point. 

PRACTICE 

Business 

Write a careful explanation on a business topic. In revising 
your work consider these points: knowledge of subject, completeness 
of explanation, clearness, arrangement, connectives, word choice, 
directness, illustrations and diagrams, method, spelling, punctua¬ 
tion, capitalization, grammar, idiom, sentence structure, and para¬ 
graph structure. 

1. Qualities of a successful bookkeeper, stenographer, private 
secretary, office assistant, manager, salesman, department-store 
adjuster. 2. How to apply for a job and get it. 3. Importance 
of a good memory in business. 4. How to remember names. 
5. Gum chewing in the business world. 6. Why some boys and 
girls are never promoted in business. 7. Powder and paint in 
store and office. 8. Good English as a business asset. 9. College 
education as a preparation for business life. 10. How the sten¬ 
ographer may increase his vocabulary. 11. Voices and manners 
in a big store. 12. How to secure a customer. 13. How to hold 
a customer. 14. Mistakes in using the telephone. 15. Labor- 
saving devices in a business office. 16. Duties of an office assistant. 
17. How the sight draft is used for collection. 18. How stocks 
differ from bonds. 19. Writing collection letters. 20. The use 
of form letters in business. 21. How to fold a letter and insert it 
in an envelope. 22. The advantages of card and loose-leaf devices. 


CHAPTER VII 


EXTEMPORANEOUS SPEAKING 

Meaning. There is no sharp line of distinction between 
oral composition and extemporaneous speaking. In fact 
oral composition includes extemporaneous speaking, im¬ 
promptu speaking, and debating. Debating, in turn, is 
commonly extemporaneous speaking. Impromptu speak¬ 
ing is offhand, unprepared. Extemporaneous speech is 
prepared but not memorized. 

Importance. Ruskin says, “ The rule is five thousand 
a year to your talker and a shilling a day to your fighter, 
digger, and thinker.” At the first Plattsburg camp two 
hundred young men were denied commissions in the United 
States Army because of poor voice and articulation. Pro¬ 
fessor Winans points out that engineers, because they are 
not trained in public speaking, seldom become presidents 
of engineering corporations. Not only in the law, ministry, 
teaching, and politics, but in many other vocations ability 
in public speaking has a dollar-and-cent value. 

The convincing speaker has also opportunities for public 
service. Self-respect compels a person to speak so that the 
words of his mouth will not condemn him. Grammatical 
errors and dialect are classed with dirty hands, face, and 
clothes and bad table manners. Patriotism suggests that 
he learn to speak convincingly in support of law and order 
and democratic institutions and against violence, selfish¬ 
ness, and dishonesty. The leader in high school, college, 
and public life is commonly a forceful speaker. 

97 


98 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


Before an Audience 

1. Stand up. Don't slouch. Stand easily, not lazily, 
with chest up, weight well forward, shoulders square, 
head erect, and chin in. Practice relaxing the arms, hands, 
and throat. Avoid swaying from side to side, twitching 
the fingers, and other purposeless movements. Usually 
the speaker stands with the weight on the ball of one foot 
and with the other foot at a comfortable distance diagonally 
in front. In this position the weight foot may point straight 
to the front or be slanted out; the free foot is turned out. 
The free foot leads in a change of position. The weight 
may at any time be shifted to the advanced foot for such 
a change or for especially vigorous speech. 

2. Face the audience squarely. Look at the audience, 
not at the ceiling, the floor, or the windows. 

3. Don’t acquire the habit of speaking with hands in 
pockets or of leaning on a desk or a chair. These habits 
indicate either a lack of training or a “ cocksureness ” 
that an audience will tolerate in a genius but hardly in a 
schoolboy. It is of course not criminal to put a hand in 
a pocket or let it rest lightly on a desk at the speaker's 
side, but such an easy position should be the exception, 
not the habit. Don’t stand with arms behind the back 
as if personating an armless statue. 

4. Articulate distinctly. Cut your words apart. Don't 
swallow the ends of words and sentences. Let the audience 
hear the last sound of each word and the last word of each 
sentence. 

5. Open the mouth to avoid nasality and improve articula¬ 
tion and vocal resonance. Don't talk through the teeth. 
The mouth is the horn of the human phonograph. 

6. Use your most pleasing tones. 

7. Take a breath before speaking the first sentence. This 
will give you the stuff out of which to make voice and will 


EXTEMPORANEOUS SPEAKING 


90 


help to overcome nervousness. Avoid haste in beginning 
to speak. Make sure that everybody hears your opening 
words, but don’t begin in a high-pitched, loud voice. 

8. Don't hurry in leaving the front of the room or the plat - 
form. End the speech with your best sentence and best 
delivery. 

9. Speak in well-constructed sentences. 

10. Don’t “ crank up ” with well or why. Attach a 
self-starter to your speaking apparatus. Don’t hitch 
sentences together with and’s , hut’s, or so’s. Don’t fill 
pauses with urs. Pause before conjunctions and prepo¬ 
sitions, not after them. Avoid and-ur, hut-ur, that-ur, 
to-ur. Professor Winans says, “ Grunting is no part of 
thinking.” Oliver Wendell Holmes says, 

And when you stick on conversation’s burrs, 

Don’t strew your pathway with those dreadful urs. 

11. Build paragraphs. 

12. Change position occasionally at the beginning of a 
paragraph. Stand still until you are ready to paragraph 
in this way. Make the change as you begin to speak the 
paragraph rather than during a pause. The change may 
be several steps obliquely forward. If moving obliquely 
to the right, begin the movement with the right foot. 
Starting to the right with the left foot or to the left with 
the right foot is an awkward movement. If you are near 
the edge of the platform, the change may be a short step 
backward as you address another group of the audience. 

13. Talk to the audience, not at the audience. Use the 
tone of conversation but speak slowly and especially dis¬ 
tinctly if the audience is large. Make a thick-skulled, 
slightly deaf person on the last seat understand everything 
you say. Avoid the auctioneer style. Senator Hoar ad¬ 
vises a person to adopt the style of speech he would use 
in an earnest and serious dialogue with some one at the 


100 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


other end of the table. Professor Winans warns against 
two common speech faults — absent-minded delivery and 
soliloquizing delivery. Absent-minded delivery means 
speaking without thinking the ideas. A reader may just 
pronounce words instead of getting and giving ideas. 
Frequently memorized debates and orations are spoken in 
parrot fashion because the speakers don’t think what they 
say. Soliloquizing is talking to oneself rather than to the 
audience. If you look at the audience, you are likely to 
talk to them and send your ideas into their minds. 

Talk to different parts of the audience. One experienced 
speaker always watches sharply three auditors, one on 
the right, another in the center, and a third on the left, 
to ascertain the effect of his speech. He selects people on 
the rear seats so that he may be sure that every one is 
easily hearing his words. 

14. Show real concern. Be honest, earnest, animated, 
enthusiastic, and forceful. Talk simply and straight to 
the point. Avoid bookishness and formality. 

15. Vary the pitch , force, and rate. A monotonous 
delivery puts an audience to sleep. 

16. Pause before emphatic words. Make the audience 
wonder what is coming. 

17. Don’t make incipient gestures. Make complete 
gestures or none. 

18. Don’t apologize. 

19. Use no notes except perhaps in a rebuttal in debate 
or other speaking without an opportunity to memorize the 
points to be discussed. 

20. Avoid mannerisms. What is yours? Perhaps it is 
playing with a button or chair, rubbing hands together, 
rising on toes, buttoning and unbuttoning coat, adjusting 
collar or necktie, or making faces as you speak. Manner¬ 
isms indicate embarrassment. Nervousness is not criminal, 
but advertising one’s nervousness is foolish. If a speaker 


EXTEMPORANEOUS SPEAKING 


101 


practices rigid self-control by retaining the speaker’s posi¬ 
tion even though his knees are trembling under him, he 
will not only conceal his nervousness but quickly overcome 

it. Be master of yourself. 

* < 

On the Platform 

1. At the beginning of the speech, when you rise or when 
you reach the center of the platform, recognize the chairman 
with “ Mr. Chairman,” a bow, or both. Recognize the 
audience with “ Ladies and gentlemen,” a bow, or both. 
The bow should be a slight bend forward from the hips 
and a dropping of the head and eyes. An elaborate or 
profound bow is both unnecessary and offensive. 

2. When introduced, walk straight to a position well 
forward on the platform. 

3. Walk on the platform as you walk along the street. 
Avoid both the stride and the tiny step. Don’t march 
soldierlike and don’t catlike steal on as if you wished to 
approach the audience unobserved. Don’t look at the 
floor as if searching for a lost dime. Look at the audience 
when you are walking toward them. 

4. Don’t begin to speak at the very edge of the platform. 
Such a position makes a change of position difficult and 
causes the audience to wonder whether you will break 
any bones when you step off the edge. 

5. Don’t end a speech with “ I thank you.” Instead, 
you may bow slightly. 

6. Don’t walk the platform as if impersonating a caged 

' • *■ r-- • • ;. • * 

hyena or a lion at feeding time. 

7. Practice correct posture and platform behavior until 
the correct becomes habitual. Then, when you address 
an audience, you may forget these details, forget yourself, 
and center attention on what you have to say to the 
audience and their reception of the message. But you 
can’t forget until you have first learned. 



102 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


REPRODUCTION PROGRAMS 

Be prepared to speak pointedly on all these topics: 

1. The importance of extemporaneous speaking. 2. Posture. 
3. Hands. 4. Changing position. 5. Pauses. 6. Concern. 
7. Notes. 8. The tone of conversation. 9. Mannerisms. 
10. Walking and standing on the platform. 11. Speaking faults. 
12. Rules to observe when one is before an audience. 


Monthly Current Topic Program 

Read a number of the Outlook, Review of Reviews, Independent, 
Literary Digest, or World’s Work. Select four articles, write the 
titles on a slip of paper, and be prepared to speak on the four 
topics. In class the teacher will select from your list the topic 
which you are to discuss. 


Book Days 

Reproduce the best chapter or half chapter of the supplementary 
book you are reading. 


Captains of Industry 

Let a class squad prepare a program on inventors, captains of 
industry, and business men. Select such men as Peter Cooper, 
Horace Greeley, Henry Bessemer, Ezra Cornell, John Wanamaker, 
Andrew Carnegie, Charles M. Schwab, John D. Rockefeller, 
Thomas Edison, Henry Ford, and Frank Vanderlip. Secure infor¬ 
mation from Parton’s Captains of Industry and Forbes’s The Men 
Who Are Making America. 


Other Famous Men and Women 


Prepare programs on American statesmen, American generals, 
American authors, British authors, living authors, great women, 
and the ten greatest Americans. 





EXTEMPORANEOUS SPEAKING 


103 


Mythology 

Tell to the class a good story from Guerber’s Myths of Greece 
and Rome , Bulfinch’s Age of Fable, or Gayley’s Classic Myths. 

/ 

How to Prepare an Extemporaneous Speech 

1. Know why you are speaking. The four common 
purposes of speech are to entertain, to inform, to convince, 
and to move to action. The humorist entertains with a 
good story. The teacher, manager, and foreman speak for 
the purpose of making ideas clear to learners. The debater 
is satisfied if he convinces the judges or audience. The 
speaker who is raising funds for the Red Cross, an orphans’ 
home, or a hospital is successful only if satisfactory con¬ 
tributions are made. Decide which of the four is your 
purpose. In a complete sentence state the exact purpose 
of your speech; as, My purpose is to win votes for James 
Wilson as president of the Athletic Association. 

2. Begin early to prepare. 

3. Make sure that your subject is definite and not too 
broad. 

4. Ask yourself questions to inventory your knowledge of 
the subject. Answer these questions as fully and definitely 
as possible. Jot down the various ideas as they come into 
mind without regard to order. Think what material you 
will have to find to accomplish your purpose. 

5. Read and talk. Don’t read entire books or magazine 
articles unless the material is directly to the point. Read 
as widely as your time for preparation permits, but find 
the books and articles that help you to accomplish your 
purpose. 

6. As you read, take accurate notes , preferably on library 
cards. Copy facts, not words, unless you intend to quote 
the words. Use a separate card or small sheet of paper for 
each point. 



104 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


Defenceless America — Hudson Maxim -— p. 78. 

This vital area is the solar plexis of Uncle Sam and an army 
of a hundred thousand trained men, landed on our Atlantic sea¬ 
board, would be able to capture this entire area and subdue the 
populace as easily as the police force of New York can subdue 
a rioting mob. 


7. Select the main points or arguments to accomplish the 
purpose set. Decide what are the main props supporting 
your contention or the big divisions of the subject to be 
treated. Dr. Edward Everett Hale advises a student 
preparing to speak to sit down and write a letter to a friend 
saying, “ I am to speak on a certain subject, and I wish 
to make these points.” Here he should state exactly the 
points he intends to make. Dr. Hale continues, “ If the 
student finds he has nothing to say in his letter, he had 
better write to the committee that invited him, and say 
that the probable death of his grandmother will possibly 
prevent his being present on the occasion.” This statement 
of main points may be very simple; as, 

Reasons for Voting for James Wilson for 
President of the Athletic Association 

I. His scholarship. 

II. His executive ability. 

III. His athletic record. 

8. Arrange your material under the main points. 

9. Decide what should he said in the introduction and 
conclusion. The introduction should suggest the purpose 
of the speech and prepare the audience for a favorable 
reception of the ideas to be presented. It may be a state¬ 
ment of the importance of the subject to the audience, a 
brief history, or a direct statement of the purpose or theme 



EXTEMPORANEOUS SPEAKING 


105 


of the speaker. Other forms of introduction are a general 
statement to be illustrated, a striking illustration, a brief 
quotation, a reference to history or literature, or a brief, 
pointed anecdote. 

In the conclusion the speaker should take leave of the 
audience gracefully and drive home his main point. The 
conclusion should throw a new light on the subject, strike 
the keynote of the speech, serve as a climax, fix important 
ideas, enforce the central idea, hammer home the essential, 
or impel to action. The prime qualities of a good con¬ 
clusion are brevity and force. 

10. Boil down. Eliminate unnecessary words and 

repetitions. Two speech diseases are talking too much and 
saying too little. , 

11. Be concrete, specific, vivid, clear. Pictures hold an 
audience better than abstractions. Use your imagination. 

12. Practice. Either write the speech out several times 
and throw away the manuscript after each writing, or 
speak to real or imaginary auditors. Talk to the cat or 
canary rather than just into the air. Don’t try to fix the 
exact words. Make yourself at home in the subject by 
making paths through it. Adjust the length to the time 
assigned you. As you speak, visualize your audience and 
see how each point is received. Practice occasionally 
before a mirror to establish the habit of standing well 
and to get rid of mannerisms. 

13. Watch for defects in your speech which your teacher 
or classmates have pointed out. 

14. Profit by the criticism of any one who will listen to 
you. Watch your hearer to see whether he is actually 
interested in what you are saying. If he isn’t, find the 
reason and try again. 

15. Have your main points so fixed in memory that before 
the audience you will always know what point comes next. 
Think how the main topics are linked in thought. 



106 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


Criticism Outline 

1. Posture — body, eyes, hands, purposeless movements. 

2. Articulation, enunciation, and pronunciation. 

3. Voice. 

4. Well, why, and, but, so, ur. 

5. Words—correct, simple, suggestive, specific, picture-making. 

6. Sentences — correct, clear, terse, forceful. 

7. Structure of speech — main topics, subtopics, paragraphs. 

8. Definite purpose. 

9. Adequate, accurate, worth-while subject matter. 

10. Introduction and conclusion — matter and manner. 

11. Conversation — not soliloquy or absent-minded recitation. 

12. Concern. Interest aroused. 

13. Variety. 

14. Mannerisms. 

15. Fluency — main points fixed in memory, a minimum of 
hesitation and repetition. 

16. Other defects — use of notes, apology, incipient gestures, 
talking through teeth, etc 

PRACTICE 

Be ready to talk pointedly on these topics: 

1. Reading and taking notes. 2. Outlining a speech. 3. Pur¬ 
pose. 4. Inventory. 5. Introduction and conclusion. 6. Practice. 
7. How to prepare an extemporaneous speech. 

Extemporaneous Speaking Programs 
Oral Newspaper or Magazine 

1. An editorial, cartoon, or item of foreign, domestic, com¬ 
munity, school, or sporting news. 2. Reproduction of a magazine 
article. 3. A recent invention or discovery. 

Travelog 

The speech may be based on travel or reading. If possible, 
illustrate with stereopticon slides, photographs, or pictures enlarged 
by the refledoscope. 


EXTEMPORANEOUS SPEAKING 


107 


1. A trip up the Hudson. 2. Among the Thousand Islands. 

3. A visit to Niagara Falls. 4. Through the Yellowstone National 
Park. 5. In the Grand Canyon of the Colorado. 6. The Yosemite 
Valley. 7. A worth-while trip. 8. Palm Beach in winter. 9. A 
historic place worth visiting. 10. A repdrt on one foreign country. 
11. The Canadian Rockies. 12. The Shakespeare country. 
13. The Burns country. 14. Irving’s haunts. 15. Longfellow’s 
home. 16. Whittier land. 17. The English lakes. 18. A local 
industry. 19. A factory I have visited. 20. A newspaper or 
other office. 21. The chemical laboratory. 22. The school 
heating plant. 23. The office-practice room. 

Assembly 

1. Persuade the pupils to buy the school paper or hand in news 
or articles for the paper. 2. Urge the boys to try for one of the 
school teams. 3. Announce a basketball, football, or baseball 
game in such a way as to insure a large attendance. 4. Persuade 
the pupils to buy tickets for the annual play, entertainment, or 
concert. 5. Announce a debate or speaking contest. 6. Explain 
the purposes and work of a school club. 7. Urge the pupils to 
try out for the debate team or a musical club. 8. Announce a 
short-story, essay, or school-song contest. 9. Speak at a Jack 
London, Dickens, Shakespeare, Wordsworth, Mark Twain, 
Hawthorne, Lincoln, Washington, Roosevelt, Thanksgiving, 
Memorial-Day, or Christmas celebration. 

Movie Day 

1. A moving picture that is worth seeing. 2. Kinds of moving 
pictures that are harmful. 3. Criticism of a moving picture. 

4. My favorite movie actor. 5. Educational value of the moving 
picture. 6. Characteristics of a good moving picture. 7. Should 
pupils be permitted to attend the movies during the school w r eek? 

Theater Day 

1. A play that I enjoyed. 2. A play worth seeing or not worth 
seeing. 3. A really funny play. 4. A play that was well acted. 


108 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


5. Criticism of an actor. 6. The saddest play I ever saw. 7. Criti¬ 
cism of an amateur play. 8. Value of acting scenes from a play 
or novel studied. 9. How to act the part of Brutus, Cassius, 
Sir Toby Belch, Malvolio, Dunstan Cass, Sydney Carton, or 
another character studied. 

Salesmanship Day 

1. Education of salesmen. 2. Importance of salesmen. 
3. Qualities of a successful salesman — health, initiative, industry, 
accuracy, loyalty, cooperation, responsibility, intelligence, en¬ 
thusiasm, tact. 4. The steps in a sale. 5. How to sell a suit. 

6. What customers do not like. 7. Salesman’s appearance. 
8. Voice and speech. 9. The salesman’s manner. 10. A sales 
talk. Sell to the class a book, magazine, novelty, machine, or other 
article. If possible, have the article in class. Give the class a 
chance to ask questions. 


Money 

Persuade your classmates to contribute to one of these causes: 

1. The Boy Scouts. 2. The Young Men’s Christian Associa¬ 
tion. 3. The hospital. 4. The student aid fund. 5. The Salvation 
Army. 6. An unfortunate family in the community. 7. French 

war orphans. 8. The starving population of-. 9. A cause 

that needs a friend. 


Literary Club 

Prepare to speak on one of the following topics. For the book 
named , substitute the supplementary book you have just read. If 
you like the book, make it so attractive that your classmates will read it. 

1. What I liked in Eliot’s Romola (or any other book). 2. What 
I disliked in Mitchell’s Hugh Wynne (or any other book). 3. What 
interested me most in Tarkington’s A Gentleman from Indiana. 

4. What I learned from Muir’s The Boyhood of a Naturalist. 

5. Why Roosevelt’s Letters to Ilis Children is worth reading. 

6. A review or criticism of Conrad’s Lord Jim. 7. A character 
in Burnett’s Through One Administration. 8. Contrast in 






EXTEMPORANEOUS SPEAKING 


109 


Kennedy’s The Servant in the House. 9. The setting of James’s 
Daisy Miller. 10. The plot of Thackeray’s Henry Esmond. 
11. Why you should read O. Henry’s The Four Million. 12. What 
you should look for in reading Wiltse’s Still Jim. 13. A book I 
have recently enjoyed. 14. The kind of book I like. 15. My 
favorite book. (Make your hearers want to read it.) 16. My 
favorite character in fiction. Why? 17. Books that should be 
added to our supplementary reading list. 18. My favorite author. 
19. Value of novel reading. 20. The value of the study of the 
drama. 21. A character sketch. 22. How to use the dictionary 
(spelling, pronunciation, meaning, etymology, grammar, syn¬ 
onyms). 23. How to read a book. 24. How to use the margin. 
25. The best books of the year. 26. Books I have outgrown. 

Let a class committee prepare a program of recitations , speeches , 
dramatizations, and games based upon a book studied in class. 


American Problems 

1. Immigration. 2. Coal. 3. Food. 4. Railroads. 5. Law¬ 
lessness. 6. Federal control of education. 7. American partici¬ 
pation in European affairs. 8. The tariff. 9. Lynching. 10. Labor 
and capital. 11. Liquor. 12. Another problem. 


College Day 

Discuss the location, buildings, courses, expenses, athletics, 
student life, advantages, and disadvantages of the college which 
you know best or expect to enter. 


City or Community 

1. Ways of making our school of service to the community. 
2. The advantages of living in our community. 3. How our 
city or town is being beautified. 4. Brief history of our city. 
5. Opportunities for play in our city or town. 6. A local industry. 
7. The future of our city or town. 


110 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


Physiography Day 

1. Causes of change of season. 2. Why (lays and nights are of 
unequal length. 3. Earthquakes; what they are and how they 
are caused. 4. Geysers; what they are and how they act. 
5. Natural gas; its nature and its uses. 6. Natural resources 
of our state. 7. Cause of eclipses. 8. Land and sea breezes. 
9. Causes and effects of tides. 10. Causes and effects of ocean 
currents. 11. Types of soil. 12. What is coal? 13. Dry farming. 
14. Economic value of mountains. 15. Causes of volcanic action. 

16. Preserving and restoring soil fertility. 17. Forecasting of 
weather. 18. How most economically to increase the nitrogen 
of the soil. 19. Comparison of the climate of San Francisco with 
that of New York City. 20. The ocean floor and its deposits. 

Physics Program 

1. Why -we use machines. 2. An air compressor. 3. Uses of 
compressed air. 4. How a boat sails into the wind. 5. Why an 
aeroplane flies. 6. Centigrade and Fahrenheit thermometers. 
7. Artificial ice. 8. Steam engine. 9. Gas engine. 10. Lightning 
rods. 11. What to do if the electric bell doesn’t ring. 12. Tele¬ 
graph. 13. The telephone receiver. 14. The telephone trans¬ 
mitter. 15. Noise and musical sounds. 16. The phonograph. 

17. The eye. 18. Simple microscope or magnifying glass. 19. How 
electricity has improved the living conditions in this country. 
20. How a camera takes a picture. 21. A dynamo. 22. How the 
sap rises in a tree. 23. Electric motor. 24. How sounds are made 
and carried. 25. The Law of the Conservation of Energy. 

Another Subject 

Let a class squad prepare a program based on another subject 
studied. 

Other Speaking Programs 

1. Do you know five good jokes or anecdotes? Be ready to 
tell two in class on Joke Day. 

2. What is your hobby? On Hobby Day tell about it clearly 
and enthusiastically. 


EXTEMPORANEOUS SPEAKING 111 

3. On a Better High School Day explain fully and completely 
an improvement needed in the school. 

4. On Poetry Day recite a memory selection and tell why 
you think it worth remembering. 

5. On Nomination Day propose a candidate for a school, 
class, club, town, city, state, or United States office. 

6. Present or accept a gift, medal, trophy, or banner — base¬ 
ball championship trophy, birthday gift, gift to the retiring presi¬ 
dent of a society, Carnegie medal for a brave rescue. 

7. Explain a business proposition or a new industry with a 
view to arousing interest or selling stock. 

8. Let A introduce an after-dinner speaker or assembly 
speaker, and B, representing the person introduced, speak briefly. 

9. Make a political speech in support of a candidate running 
for office in school, city, town, county, state, or the United States. 

10. Rousseau declared that reading is “the greatest scourge of 
childhood,” that books should not be placed in the hands of chil¬ 
dren before the age of twelve. Advance proof that Rousseau was 
right or wrong. 

11. Your class has been given the privilege of substituting a 
recent drama for a Shakesperean play in the course of study. 
Before voting, the class is given a period for discussion. Which 
play do you prefer? Why? Be specific. 


CHAPTER VIII 
THE LETTER 


Parts of a business letter. The six parts needed in every 
business letter are heading, address, salutation, body, 
complimentary close, and signature. In most typewritten 
letters each part is single-spaced, and the parts are separated 
by double-spacing. 

Open Punctuation 

28 Broad Street 

Washington, New Jersey 
December 2, 1922 

John Wanamaker 

Ninth Street and Broadway 
New York City 

Gentlemen: 


Yours truly. 

&hae& ^iicUL^yi 


Close Punctuation 


Mrs. Samuel Warner, 
1024 Wabash Avenue, 
Chicago, Illinois. 


114 Sunset Avenue, 
Utica, New York, 
December 4, 1922. 


Dear Madam: 


Yours very truly, 

'J. 


112 








THE LETTER 


113 


Block Style 

(.Not recommended for handwritten letters.) 


1013 Baltimore Avenue 
Kansas City, Missouri 
December 12, 1922 


Mr. James Stern, President 
Union National Bank 
62 West Fourteenth Street 
St. Louis, Missouri 


Dear Sir: 


Very truly yours. 

Jay Electric Company 

by 7 / 7 . jl. lAM£ti>a,'VVVQs 


Letter Form Model 

(The firm uses a letterhead. The letter is dictated and has one in¬ 
closure. The writer addresses it to a particular member of the firm and 
announces in advance the subject of the letter. Most correspondents omit 
the letter subject.) 


Date 

Letter 

subject 

Particular 

address 


Complimentary 

close 

Signature 


Letterhead 


Address 


Salutation 


Body 


Dictator and 
typist 
In closure 


BROADWAY PRESS 

PRINTING AND ENGRAVING 

9 Willoughby Street 
Brooklyn, New York 

January 2, 1923 

E.P.Lee&co. Subject: Program 
115 Devonshire Street 
Boston, Massachusetts 

Gentlemen: Attention of Mr. Duell 


Very truly yours, 
Broadway Press 

c£ //. f/ClirbEAs 

Manager 


FHG/SM 
Inc. 







114 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


Heading 

1. The heading contains the writer’s address and the 
date, and begins about halfway across the paper an inch 
or two from the top. 

2. It may occupy one, two, or three lines. If two or 
three lines are used, the date stands alone on the last one. 
When a letterhead is used, the date is the only part written 
or typed. 

3. In a handwritten letter each line begins farther to the 
right than the preceding; in a typewritten letter the second 
and third lines may begin under the first. 

4. Notice in the illustrations the two common systems 
of punctuation, open and close. A mixture is wrong. If 
a comma is placed after the first line of three, the comma 
after the second and period after the third are necessary. 
In open punctuation no mark is placed after any line unless 
it ends with an abbreviation. 

5. Although the name of the state may be abbreviated, 
many firms believe it better not to abbreviate. The name 
of the month should not be abbreviated. Abbreviate as 
little as possible. 

6. The name of a numbered street or avenue is as a rule 
spelled out unless it is two words. 

(Right) 150 Fifth Avenue; 249 East 168th Street; 249 
East 168 Street; 12 Fifteenth Street. 

Address 

1. The name and address of the firm written to are placed 

at the left-hand margin just below the heading, rarely at 
the end of the letter. m 

2. The street number may be omitted. The prevailing 
custom is to include it. 

3. The arrangement and punctuation must follow the 
system of the heading. If the heading has no punctuation 


THE LETTER 


115 


T*r* inn < Spn at 6409.19 Untti: Tm Gasbnwich Village Pu»rtim, ln«. 



THE GREENWICH VILLAGE THEATRE 
4th STREET & 7th AVENUE 
NEW YORK, N. Y. 

MARGUERITE ABBOTT BARKER 


(Thf 

A *°gTDn rm»jS^ B' Aj»»rt t»rr 


73 83 DEY STREET HEW YORK July IS, 1922. 

I 


Tti h l i t ftnd on tht 6&b tad tvcndcth of cull month bf the Omld Publishing Comptny, John Clyde Oorsid, President. Founded in July IS* J 



2)9 West 39th Stisct 
New York 


January 1, 1833 


THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 

OF THE UNITED STATE* 
WASHINGTON. D. C. 


OFFICE OF 
THE SECRETARY 


June 28, 1922, 



Tht ■ ATLANTIC • MONTHLY • PRESS • Inc. 


g ARLINGTON 
BOSTON 


STREET. 

June 29, 


192E. 


Typical Letterheads 












116 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


after lines and a sloping margin, don’t change in the 
address. 

4. Use the proper title. Those commonly used are: To 
the name of an unmarried woman Miss is prefixed; of a 
married woman or widow, Mrs.; of a lad, Master ; of a 
man without special title, Mr. (with its plural Messrs.). 
Instead of Mr., Esq. after the name is frequently used. Rev. 
is the title of a clergyman; Dr. of one who holds the doc¬ 
torate degree; Professor, of one who has attained the rank 
of professor in a college or university. Hon. stands before 
the name of a cabinet officer, a senator, a congressman, 
an ambassador, a governor, a judge, or a mayor. The is 
commonly used before the title of a high official. 

The Honorable Warren G. Harding 
- . President of the United States . 

If a corporation name contains the names of individuals, 
it is proper to write Messrs, before it or to omit the title. 
Both of these are correct: 

Messrs. Brown, Wilson & Company 
Brown, Wilson <£* Company 

The is used before a corporation name that does not contain 
individual names: The National Biscuit Company. Avoid 
double titles. 

(Wrong) Mr. E. J. Stenson, Esq. 

Rev. Mr. H. B. Laird 
(Right) Mr. E. J. Stenson 
E. J. Stenson, Esq. 

Rev. H. B. Laird 


Salutation 

1. Business salutations are — 

Dear Sir: Gentlemen: 

My dear Sir: • Ladies: or Mesdames: 

Dear Mr. Hawkins: Dear Madam: 

My dear Mr. Page: My dear Madam: 



THE LETTER 


117 


Sir: is used in a letter to the president, vice president, 
or a cabinet officer, and may be used in addressing a con¬ 
gressman, senator, judge, governor, or other high official. 

2. Begin the salutation at the margin. 

3. Use a colon after the salutation. 

4. The first word and all nouns are capitalized. 

Body 

1. Indent all paragraphs alike. Don’t make the first 
paragraph an exception. 

2. Good English is good business English. Vary the 
sentence length. The short simple sentence is emphatic 
but usually not so precise as the longer complex sentence. 

3. A good business letter is correct, clear, complete, 
accurate, courteous, and concise. Have clearly in mind 
what you wish to say and express your ideas exactly and 
fully in simple, direct language. As a rule, confine a letter 
to one subject. Clearness requires also a separate para¬ 
graph for each idea. Paragraphs in business correspondence 
are shorter than in a book chapter or magazine article. 

4. The first sentence is especially important. It should 
state the subject of the letter and sometimes refer to the 
date and content of the letter to which it is a reply. 

5. As the last sentence also occupies an important posi¬ 
tion, it should be clean-cut and complete. Avoid the par¬ 
ticipial conclusion beginning with hoping, trusting, believing, 
thanking, or regretting. And oblige is obsolete. Don’t insert 
We beg to remain, We remain, or I am before the compli¬ 
mentary close. 

6. Conciseness requires that the writer courteously make 
his point in the fewest possible words. Don’t omit such 
necessary words as the subject, verb, articles, or preposi¬ 
tions. A business letter is not a telegram. Instead of 
Received your letter, say I received your letter. Business 


118 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


men now avoid the hackneyed business expressions which 
were correct in the days of our grandfathers. 

(Old-fashioned) 

a. Your esteemed favor of the 30th ult. is at hand; are sorry 
that the twenty pounds of White House coffee have not arrived. 

b. Yours of recent date received and contents carefully noted 
and in reply to same would say that your order was shipped on 
December 10th. 

c. Enclosed herewith please find — 

d. Regretting our inability to serve you along these lines, we 
beg to remain — 

(Better) 

a. We regret to learn from your letter of November 30 that 
you have not received the twenty pounds of White House coffee. 

b. We are glad to find that the order about which you inquired 
in your letter of December 14 was shipped on December 10. 

c. I inclose — 

d. We regret that our stock of Humphrey Radiantfires is 
exhausted. 

7. The secret of success in letter writing and salesman¬ 
ship is putting yourself in the other fellow’s place. This 
is called the “ you spirit ” or “ getting on the other fellow’s 
side of the fence.” See the face of the recipient as you dic¬ 
tate or write. Hear in imagination what he has to say after 
each sentence as he reads. Make the letter talkative, and 
talk with the person, not at him. Cross out 7 , we, my, 
and our, and insert you and your. 

8. When a single-spaced typewritten letter has double 
spacing between paragraphs, paragraph indention is not 
required if the block style is used in the heading and address. 
This tendency to begin all paragraphs at the margin seems 
to be growing. 

9. Margins on the right and left should be kept as even 
as possible. The margin on the right is not required in a 


THE LETTER 


119 


pen-written letter. Double-space a short letter and center 
it on the page by increasing the space on the four sides. 

10. Abbreviations are rarely used in the body of business 
letters. 


Complimentary Close 

1. The complimentary close may be — 

Yours truly, Very truly yours, 

Truly yours, Yours very truly, 

Respectfully yours and Yours respectfully are used in writing 
to school and government officials. A business letter to an 
acquaintance may close with Cordially yours, Sincerely 
yours, Yours cordially, or Yours sincerely. 

2. Place a comma after the complimentary close. 

3. Capitalize the first word only of the complimentary 
close. 

4. Begin the complimentary close about halfway across 
the page. 


Signature 

1. The signature is placed below the complimentary 
close and begins on a margin farther to the right. 

2. A period is not necessary after the signature but may 
be used if the period is used after the address and heading. 

3. Write the signature legibly. Typewritten letters 
frequently have the signature both typed and pen-written. 

4. A woman addressing a stranger should make clear 
what title he should use in the reply. 

(Correct) 

( 1 ) (Miss) Gladys Saunders 

(2) Kathryn Willis Thompson 
(Mrs. James Thompson) 

(3) Mrs. James Thompson 


120 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


5. In a letter from a firm, if the letterhead does not show 
the writer’s position, the signature should make this clear. 

(1) LOOSE-WILES COMPANY, 

jt. IS. /Syisyi& 

Advertising Manager 

( 2 ) 'US. fo. eiaAjh 

Business Manager 

PRACTICE 

Write the heading , address, salutation , complimentary close, and 
signature of each letter: 

1. Henrietta Wilson (wife of John Wilson), 382 Pennsylvania 
Street, Buffalo, New York, writes to E. H. Black, Esquire, Chicago 
Theological Seminary, 45 Warren Avenue, Chicago, Illinois. 

2. Andrew King, president of Thomson and Company, 297 
Washington Street, Buffalo, New York, writes to Hare & Smith, 
Pittsburg, Pennsylvania. 

3. H. J. Moss, manager of Olney and Warren, 297 Lafayette 
Street, San Francisco, California, writes to Henry Cabot Lodge, 
United States Senate, Washington, District of Columbia. 

4. From your home address write to Mrs. Henry Jameson, 
secretary of the Wharton School of Finance, Philadelphia, 
Pennsylvania. 

Envelope Address 

1. The margin, straight or diagonal, and punctuation, 
open or close, should correspond with those of the letter. 

2. Simplify the work of the post-office department and 
make sure that the letter arrives by writing the complete 
address legibly. Abbreviation of the name of the state is 
the cause of many lost letters. 

3. Fix the stamp securely in its proper place. A stamp 
diagonally across the corner of the envelope is evidence of 
haste, carelessness, or freakishness. 


THE LETTER 


121 


Open Punctuation, Block Style 

James C. Trask 

.110 South.. Salina Street 

Syracuse, N. Y. 

STAMP 

Professor W. C. Tanner 

Columbia University 

116th Street 

New York City 

* 


Close Punctuation 

After five days return to 

John Flood, 116 Main Street, 

Hackettstown, New Jersey. 

STAMP 

The Pepsodent Company, 

1104 South Wabash Avenue, 

Chicago, 

Illinois. 



A ■ 

Important Details 


1. A business letter should show who dictated it and who 
typed it. In the model on page 113, FHG are the initials 
of the dictator, and SM, of the typist. Custom varies 












122 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


greatly on this point. Sometimes a number identifies the 
typist: FWT —71. 

2. A notation at the left-hand margin below these initials 
refers to inclosures, if there are any. The common forms 
are: 

2 Inclosures 

Inc. 

3. Paper, ink, and envelopes of good quality add dis¬ 
tinction to correspondence. Use white, heavy paper 
8$ x 11 inches in size. Select an envelope that is strong 
enough to stand rough handling and heavy enough to 
prevent the writing showing through. 

4. To fold a sheet 8J x 11 inches, first place the lower 
half over the upper with the lower edge a quarter or half 
inch from the upper edge. Then fold in turn the right and 
left thirds of the folded sheet over the center. Place the 
letter in the envelope with the loose edges up and next to 
the flap. Put the inclosures inside the letter or between the 
letter and the envelope address. 

5. A postscript with or without P.S. may call attention 
to an especially important fact: “A specially handsome 
three-quarter leather edition of O. Henry costs only a few 
cents more per volume. See the order card.” 

6. The second page of a long letter should not have a 
letterhead. The name of the recipient and the page are 
commonly placed in the upper right-hand corner: 
F. W. Truxton 2. 

Kinds of Business Letters 
Order 

► • -£ 

1. Use at least one line for each article ordered. On 
the line give the quantity, size, catalog or page number, 
price of each, and total price. 

2. Make clear just what you want. Don’t omit necessary 
details, such as quality, style, manufacturer, description,; 


THE LETTER 


123 


Many a woman ordering a waist from the National Cloak 
& Suit Company neglects to mention the size and color. 

3. Mention the date of the catalog you are ordering from. 
You may not have the firm’s most recent catalog. 

4. Explain how payment is being made and how the 
goods are to be shipped. 

5. “ Please ship at once ” is valueless unless you explain 
why you can’t accept the goods after a definite date or why 
delayed shipment will greatly inconvenience you. 

58'Hallam Street 

Brooklyn, New York 
February 1, 1923 

Sears, Roebuck & Company 

Chicago, Illinois i 

Gentlemen: 

Please send me by American Express the follow¬ 
ing articles selected from your catalog of 
January, 1923: 

1 ice-cream freezer. Star brand, 

two—quart size $3.75 

1 Big Ben repeater alarm clock $2.75 

1 pair of men's heavy black rubber boots, 

knee length, size 9, Goodyear brand $7.25 

I am enclosing a money order for $13.75. 

Yours truly, 

(Trims') /'f&t&n TVuwcow 

Acknowledgment 

1. The acknowledgment of an order may be a printed 

postcard or a personal letter. 

2. The acknowledgment should usually contain a 
reference to the order by date or articles, a statement about 
the time and method of shipment, and hearty thanks for 
the order, A receipted bill may be inclosed. 


124 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


114 Tremont Street 

Boston, Massachusetts 
January 10, 1923 


Mr. Almet Jenks 
Sherwood Avenue 

Syracuse, New York 


Dear Mr. Jenks: 


Let us thank you for your remittance of twenty- 
five cents in stamps for a copy of One Thousand 
Words Often Mispronounced. This order has had 
our immediate attention, and we trust the book 
will reach you promptly. 

We are enclosing our Book List, in which we 
hope you will find a number of publications that, 
will interest you. 


HJC/M 


Very truly yours, 

ff. j. (Lowujato- n 

PRACTICE 


1. Write a letter to Mason & Fairchild, Rochester, N. Y., 
ordering enough furniture to furnish a living room and a dining 
room. Supply catalog numbers, give shipping directions, and 
state that you inclose a New York draft for the amount. — Regents. 

2. Write Mason & Fairchild’s acknowledgement of the order. 

3. Order six or more articles from the grocery department of 
R. H. Macy & Company, Thirty-fourth Street and Broadway, 
New York City. 

4. Order six packages of vegetable or flower seeds from Henry 
A. Dreer, 714-716 Chestnut Street, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. 

5. Order five books from Brentano’s, Fifth Avenue and Twenty- 
seventh Street, New York City. 

6. Order four articles from Sears, Roebuck & Company, 
Chicago, Illinois. 

Claim 


1. Make clear exactly why the goods are not satisfactory 
or what the error is. 

2. Explain what correction you wish the firm to make. 


THE LETTER 125 

3. Be courteous and terse. Do not growl or scold. 
Assume that you are dealing with gentlemen. 

626 Kensington Road 
Syracuse, New York 
July 20, 1923 

The Paige Motor Car Company 

Detroit, Michigan 

Gentlemen: 

On April 1, 1923, I purchased a Paige car 
model 6-42. After running it for five thousand 
miles, I found that the back wheels were wob¬ 
bling. I wish to know if this is caused by the 
axle’s being out of line or by the wheels’ being 
sprung. If either is the cause, please advise 
me as to what I had better do, and if new parts 
are required, send prices. 

I also noticed, after running the car a short 
time, that the second speed gears were very 
noisy and produced a grating sound. Is there 
any way to get rid of that noise or at least to 
reduce it? 

Aside from the two faults the car has been 
very satisfactory. I owned a 6-39 model and was 
highly pleased with it but consider that your 
new motor is a great improvement over the old. 

The springs in the new car are much better than 
the old style cantilever type. I know two 
people who ordered cars after having ridden in 
my car and now are Paige boosters. These people 
owned large, high-priced cars heretofore, but 
they maintain that because of the sixty-four 
inch springs in the Paige, they receive the same 
riding comforts as in the more expensive cars. 

I hope you will give this matter your earliest 
attention, as I do not like to drive the car 
with the wheels in their present condition. 

Yours truly, 

RoR&bt S'lb'ltovUf 


126 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


Adjustment 

1. If you decide to grant the claim that the goods were 
damaged or defective or that the order was not completely 
filled, tell in the opening sentence just what you can and 
will do in the case. 

2. Explain why the error happened. 

3. Express your regret for the inconvenience. 

4. Make the letter long enough to show your interest 
in the customer. 

5. Be courteous even if the customer has been unreason¬ 
able and cranky. Remember that it is easier to lose a 
customer than to get one. 


EXERCISE 

Criticize these adjustment letters: 

1 

PHONE 260 


THE CITIZENS’ GAS COMPANY 

CORSICANA, TEXAS 

EDWARD HUGHES 
M anager 


November 4, 1922 


Mr. Daniel V. Pike 
Corsicana, Texas 

Dear Sir: 

Enclosed herewith please find corrected 
bill for gas used from September 19 to October 
24, 1922, amounting to $2.52 . 

Yours truly, 

(odw-CCVCO ff'iudveAs 


74/909 


THE LETTER 


127 


Mr. P. J. Dowling 
Roanoke, Virginia 


2 

715 Franklin Avenue 
Brooklyn, New York 
June 1, 1923 


Dear Sir: 


We are sorry that we have disappointed you in 
regard to the shipment of canned peaches and 
pears we sent you on May 20. We shall be very 
glad to exchange them if you wish. 

We are sure that when you display these goods 
you will be surprised at their remarkable 
salability. 

I 

We take this attitude because we know they 
will sell. We have estimated this by the in¬ 
creasing orders from Chicago and New York, the 
main centers for canned fruit. The fruit too is 
of better quality than any of our previous ship¬ 
ments. Although the labels may not be attrac¬ 
tive, the trade-mark is very valuable. 

We believe that you can make more profit on 
this brand than on any other, and therefore urge 
you to keep them. 

Very truly yours, 

ff. fda&kAifr 


PRACTICE 

1. Henry Canby, Oneida, New York, ordered a leather chair 
from the National Furniture Company, 75 Michigan Avenue, 
Chicago, Illinois. When the chair arrived, he discovered, while 
unpacking it, that the leather was torn in three places. A careful 
examination seemed to indicate that the fault lay with the packing, 
since in the places where the damage was done the chair was pro¬ 
tected only by oaper. Write Canby’s letter asking for adjustment. 
— Regents. 


128 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 

2. J. L. Kelly, sales manager of the National Furniture Com¬ 
pany, replies to Canby’s letter. Write Kelly’s reply, supplying 
such details as you consider suitable for a letter of this kind. 

3. Two weeks ago a local merchant delivered to you two rattan 
porch chairs. Just today you discovered that the rattan is broken 
in half a dozen places. In a letter explain accurately the defects 
in the chairs and make clear the adjustment you think the store 
should make. 

4. Write the reply to number 3. 

5. Write a letter to the National Cloak & Suit Company, 207 
West Twenty-fourth Street, New York City, acknowledging the 
receipt of part of the goods ordered, mentioning the articles which 
have not arrived, and asking whether you may return a pair of 
damaged gloves. Be definite. 

6. Write the reply to number 5. 

Asking for Information 

1. Make questions clear. 

2. Explain why you want the information. 

3. Enclose a stamped and self-addressed envelope. 

4. Don’t write for information that you can secure in 
the library or ask questions calling for long answers. If a 
man’s opinion is worth much, he is usually extremely busy. 

1 

Twelfth Street 

i!> Dayton, Ohio 

February 1, 1923 

Dr. William A. Shanklin, President 
Wesleyan University 
Middletown. Connecticut 

Dear Sir: 

As I am planning to enter Wesleyan in 
September, I should like to get some information 
about the possibility of obtaining a scholarship. 

How large are the scholarships offered to first- 
year men? Is examination in some form required? 


THE LETTER 129 

If so, when and where must the applicant present 
himself? -,ifn t. , 

I shall be grateful for information on these 
points and for any literature published on the 
subject. 

Yours respectfully, 

'W-'uLtisdyyv ZO-avcC 

2 

George E. Shefardson Leon h Shaw 

Chairman of the Board of Directors President 

THE DUNCANNON NATIONAL BANK 

DUNCANNON, PENNSYLVANIA 

I* ■ 

October 12, 1922 

Mr. Alfred C. Schley 

Bellwood, Pennsylvania 

Dear Sir: 

Miss Helen Ammer has applied to us for em¬ 
ployment as clerk and has given your name as 
reference. 

It would please us to have your opinion of 
her, together with any other information that 
might be of use in determining whether or not 
she would be a desirable addition to our staff. 

Facts concerning her character, ability, family 
connections, willingness to work, etc., will be 
helpful. 

The aid that you give us in passing upon 
Miss Ammer's application will be appreciated, 
and what you write will of course be held in 
confidence. The inclosed form is provided for 
your convenience in giving the desired informa¬ 
tion . 

Yours very truly, 

lyi. /if-. zPu'LcUf 

Assistant Vice President 


MDJ 








130 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


PRACTICE 

1. Your class is collecting information about advertising rates. 
Write to the Outlook Company, 381 Fourth Avenue, New York 
City. 

2. You are preparing to debate the Philippine question. Write 
to Leonard Wood or some other authority on the subject. Ask 
several pointed questions which he can answer very briefly. 

3. In the catalog of the University of Pennsylvania, Phila¬ 
delphia, Pennsylvania, the explanation about subjects accepted 
as electives is not clear to you. Also nothing is said about oppor¬ 
tunities for employment. Ask the registrar about these matters. 

4. Ask the United States Forester, Washington, D. C., whether 
his department will lend pictures or lantern slides to your club. 


Application 

1. Make the letter fit the advertisement by touching 
upon every qualification mentioned. 

2. A letter of application commonly includes most of 
these: source of information about the vacancy, the appli¬ 
cation, age, height, weight, education, experience, reason 
for change, interest in business, references, and request 
for interview. Sometimes telephone number, religion, and 
salary expected are included. 

3. Even if you lack the kind of experience desired, try 
to show that you are especially well qualified for the place 
because of your intelligence, energy, and ambition. Don’t 
tell the firm that you are intelligent; write a letter that 
shows care, originality, and force. Most applications are 
thrown into the wastebasket after a hasty reading. Make 
yours individual. 

4. Names and addresses of employers and references 
should be complete. 

(Wrong) For further information you may address my principal, 
Dr. Rice, or the president of the bank. 


THE LETTER 


131 


(Right) Dr. J. M. Rice, principal of Commercial High School, 
Albany Avenue and Bergen Street, Brooklyn, New York, and 
Mr. William Felsinger, president of the New York Savings Bank, 
Eighth Avenue and Fourteenth Street, New York City, will gladly 
give further information about me. 

5. Show by the appearance of the letter that you are 
neat and painstaking. 

6. The letter should somehow make the reader under¬ 
stand that you can be trusted. Boasting or extravagant 
statements lose; straightforwardness and genuineness win. 

STENOGRAPHER — Experienced, with 
some knowledge of bookkeeping and gen¬ 
eral office work: salary $15. B.W., Box 

357, N.Y. American Circle. 


171 Bell Avenue 

Bayside, New York 
June 26, 1923 

B.W., Box 357, New York American Circle 
New York City 

Dear Sir: 

This letter is in reply to your adver¬ 
tisement which appeared in yesterday's American . 

My qualifications are as follows: 

Age: Seventeen. 

Birth: American. 

Education: Graduate of four-year 

Commercial Course of Bayside High School, Bay- 
side, New York. I have had three years of book¬ 
keeping and Spanish, two years of stenography 
and typewriting, one year of commercial arithme¬ 
tic, commercial geography, commercial law, Amer¬ 
ican history, and business English and corre¬ 
spondence, and four years of English. I have a 
knowledge of single and double entry and corpo¬ 
ration bookkeeping. I can operate the standard 
makes of typewriters at about sixty words a 








132 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


minute. I can also use the dictaphone and 
mimeograph. I understand the filing s.ys,tems. 

I can take dictation at the rate of one hundred 
words per minute. 

Experience: During my last summer vaca¬ 

tion I was employed as stenographer and typist 
by J.I. Black, 110 Broadway. 

References: Mr. J.I. Black, Dr. H.J. 

Hickey, principal of the Bayside High School, 
and Mr. H. C. Marsh, head of the Commercial 
Department, will gladly give further information 
about my ability, character, and habits. 

Salary: The salary mentioned in the 

advertisement is satisfactory. 

I hope you will give me a chance to 
demonstrate my ability. 

Yours truly, 

S'V&cL jo-EUfEAs 

PRACTICE 

Answer one of the following advertisements or another clipped 
from the Help Wanted column of the morning paper. 


BOY, alert, ambitious, intelligent, for 
excellent opportunity in head office of 
chain store organization; apply in own 
handwriting; state age, schooling, and 
references; salary to start $10 per week 
and bonus. P 143 Times. _ 

BOY 

An opportunity is offered to a boy who 
is willing to learn the import and export busi¬ 
ness; offering many opportunities for ad¬ 
vancement ; initial salary $600 per year, with 
bonus twice per annum; high-school grad¬ 
uate preferred; applicant must be alert and 
give full details in first letter. Y 773 Times 
Downtown._ 

CLERK — Bright young woman in large 
corporation downtown Manhattan; splen¬ 
did opportunity; short hours; hot lunch at 
cost and other benefits; state age, education, 
experience, if any, and salary expected. 
Y 691 Times Downtown. 








THE LETTER 


133 


BANK 

A large downtown bank requires the 
services of a few bright, energetic boys or 
girls 16 years of age or over; salary $55 
per month to start; experience not neces¬ 
sary; excellent opportunity for advance¬ 
ment; congenial surroundings. In applying, 
state age, education, and experience, if any. 
Post Office Box 25. _ 

BOYS — Large Ameiican fire insurance 

company requires the services of several 
bright, active, neat-appearing boys; salary 
$50 per month and bonus; excellent chances 
for advancement; applications not con¬ 
sidered unless age, education, nationality, 
and references are given. V 625 Times 
Downtown. 


BOYS WANTED 

Must be 16 and grammar-school gradu¬ 
ates. A good chance to connect with a 
house that fills its bigger jobs from the 
ranks. Write a letter stating your qualifi¬ 
cations and bring it with you. 

ROGERS PEET COMPANY. 

Apply to Mr. McAuliffe, 

5th Av. and 41st St. 

GIRL as cashier and office assistant, com¬ 

mercial stationery business; hours 8:30 to 
5:30; salary $18. J 872 Times Downtown. 

GIRLS IN OFFICE 

of large manufacturing concern; good op¬ 
portunity; give full details, including salary. 

H. P , 243 Times. ___ 

OFFICE CLERK — An office assistant who 
can write a plain, rapid business hand. 
Give age, experience, references, and salary 

desired. A 144 T'ibune. _ 

OFFICE ASSISTANT — Must be quick 
and accurate with figures and must wiite 
a good hand. Give full information and 
references. B 603 Times. _ 

CORRESPONDENCE CLERK in the 
circulation department. Speed, accuracy, 
good education, and knowledge of English 
required. Rapid advancement. A 91 
Times. " ___ 


Collection 

1. A collection letter may explain why prompt payment 
ot bills is necessary in the conduct of your business. 














134 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


2. Another appeal in a collection letter is to the sense of 
fair play. Explain that your service has been prompt and 
goods the best obtainable, and say that justice requires 
prompt payment. 

3. Or show that you will have to advance prices if your 
bills remain unpaid. 

4. A final letter should state that unless payment is 
made by a specified day you will put the bill into the hands 
of your attorney or a collection agency. 

5. A collection letter may be also a sales letter if reference 
is made to reduced prices, unusual values, or goods just 
received. 

i 

Second Letter 

Dear Sir: 

For some reason we have not received your 
check for fifty dollars, now two months overdue. 

Don't bother to write us a letter—we under¬ 
stand how such oversights occur. Simply put your 
check in the enclosed envelope and mail today. 

If you can’t send us the check today, let 
us know when you will pay the bill. 

Very truly yours. 

Third Letter 

Dear Sir: 

Having had no response to our letter of 

1 

June 6, we are, to be frank, racking our brains 
for some way to reach you in order to get a 
response. Most collection letters have a ten¬ 
dency to preach promptness and its virtues. We 
refrain from this and ask only our dues. 

At heart most persons are fair. We are 
willing to make allowance for unusual circum¬ 
stances. But how are we to do that if we don't 
know them? 








THE LETTER 


135 


Won't you please favor us with a check for 
fifty dollars or let us know whether there is 
any reason why this account has remained unpaid. 

Very truly yours. 


PRACTICE 

1. Write the first and the fourth letters in this collection series. 

2. Clarence Jackson of 294 Fourth Street, Williamsport, Penn¬ 
sylvania, one of your customers who buys freely but pays slowly, 
owes six hundred dollars for lumber. He has paid no attention 
to several statements and requests for payment. Write him a 
letter that will insure his attention to the matter but will not 
offend him. 

3. Your firm, Vinney Brothers, 219 South Salina Street, 
Syracuse, New York, sold to James Thompson, 732 Ostrom 
Avenue, Syracuse, on August 15, two suits for $125. You sent 
him bills on September 1 and September 15 and a collection notice 
on October 1. He has replied to none of these. Write to him on 
October 15. 


Sales Letter 

1. In the first sentence catch the reader’s attention by a 
question, command, striking fact, or appeal to his curiosity. 

2. Convince the reader to buy by explaining the merits 
of the article. 

3. Persuade him by showing how the article fits his 
needs. 

4. Urge him to act at once. Enclose a blank to be filled 
out or offer an inducement to those who order promptly. 

5. The^short paragraph is inviting. Paragraphs of the 
same length are monotonous. Hence vary the paragraph 
length, but seldom write a long paragraph. 

6. Make the letter simple, straightforward, chatty. 
Always keep in mind the person addressed, his interest, 
traits, needs, taste. 


136 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


COMPANY 

SHORT STORIES 
GARDEN MAGAZINE 
RADIO BROADCAST 
LE PETIT JOURNAL 

CIRCULATION DEPARTMENT 

Garden City, New York 

Escape for the 
City - Doomed! 

"Some day, some day," writes a professional 
woman of New York City in Scribner’s Magazine, "I must, I 
will go back to the freedom and beauty (of the country); 
now I live in the city and earn money that in the future 
I may live out of the city. Do I not know that thousands 
of city-doomed dream this dream, thousands who will never 
realize it? Let us hope there will be country life in 
Heaven." 

City doomed! Oh, to sit among the drifting 
blossoms, listening to a choral of birds instead of dodging 
automobiles in the midst of the roar of the city streets! 
But how can it be done in that wearisome interval before 
we can build our castles in the country and escape to them? 

Here is the secret. Let your mind escape even 
though your body must stay in the city. Instead of read¬ 
ing the daily grist of scandals and hold-ups feast your 
eyes and free your souls by living in the choicest gardens 
and the most charmingly appointed homes in the world as 
they appear from month to month in COUNTRY LIFE. 

Full color is used in many of the illustra¬ 
tions so that it does not take much imagination to feel 
the full enchantment of these delightful places. COUNTRY 
LIFE has no rival in the portrayal of all that makes an 
inspiring background for American life. 

Don’t wait, like the writer quoted above, to 
have country life in Heaven. Have COUNTRY LIFE now in 
your home. Just send us $2.00 which will pay for your 
ticket to escape to the country for seven months through ~ 
the pages of COUNTRY LIFE. 

Sincerely, 

NMC/I COUNTRY LIFE 


DOUBLEDAY, PAGE & 

; J . * 

THE WORLD’S WORK 

COUNTRY LIFE PUBLISHERS 

EDUCATIONAL REVIEW 
EL ECO 







THE LETTER 


137 


Order Form 


Country Lite 

GARDEN CITY 
NEW YORK 


/ year $ 5.00 


Doubleday, Page & Company 
Garden City, New York 

Gentlemen": — Send me my ticket 
to escape to the country for the 
next seven months, in the form of 
a subscription to Country Life, for 
$2.00, which I enclose. 

Name __ 


Address _ 

Canadian postage, $1.00 Foreign postage, $2.00 C-243 


Broadway 

& J2d St. 


DAVID Td ' Mad ' s 

STEIN BLOCH SMART CLOTHES 
MENS FURNISHINGS 



Mr. J. C. Zender 

49 New York Avenue 

Brooklyn, New York 


October 14, 1922 


Dear Sir: 

Yesterday I sold a Fall Overcoat to a 
man on a visit from San Francisco. All he said 
was, "I want a Stein - Bloch, " The style and 
quality he took as much for granted, as the but¬ 
tons and buttonholes. Could there be any higher 
tribute to 61 years of knowing how? 

Among my Autumn Style-models you’ll like 
mightily the Morley, if you’re in your teens or 
twenties, and the Saxon, if you’re in your 
thirties, forties, fifties. 

Both are soft, spruce, well-set-up suits, 
with "the Stein-Bloch touch," something that no 
other clothing manufacturer has ever been able 
to match. 

Clothes as good as Stein-Bloch’s are not 
turned out, except by the steepest-cost Fifth 
Avenue tailor, and his price is &85, while mine 
is $20 to $45. 

The restful quiet here and the attentive 
service resemble a club rather than a shop. 

Very sincerely yours, 

fo-b/yi Jfciv vcl 


JD/ED 










138 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


The first and last paragraphs of a sales letter are the most 
important and hardest to write. A striking first paragraph 
will save the letter from being thrown unread into the 
wastebasket; a vigorous closing paragraph will encourage 
prompt action. 


EXERCISE 

Compare the following introductory and concluding paragraphs. 
Which in each group is best? poorest? Why? 

Introductory Paragraphs 

1. When a man with the business acumen of Mr. John Wana- 
maker insures his life for a million and a half, it is excellent proof 
that Life Insurance is not merely an anchor to windward but a 
good business investment. 

2. Civilization is passing through the most dramatic, the most 
momentous, the most stirring days since man came upon earth. 
Never were world events so fraught with immense consequences 
to humanity. 

3. “I hope nobody will ever again send me a whole set of books 
like these. For four days it has been impossible to get anything 
done about the house. Nobody will come to meals, or go to bed, 
or do anything, but read O. Henry.” 

The above letter came from Superintendent of Schools W. P. 
Colburn, of Rhinelander, Wisconsin. There is a whole file case 
full of similar messages from O. Henry subscribers, who now 
number 130,000. 

4. You will not be surprised to be told again that the supply 
of woolens, such as I use in my kind of clothes, is small and that 
desirable materials are getting scarcer every day. Every news¬ 
paper has told you that for several months. 

5. If there is one element in this world more than any other 
that makes life worth while, it is that of friendship. No one 
cares to be a Robinson Crusoe. No matter if one has all the 
wealth and comfort in the world, if one has no friends, life is a 
dismal failure. 

6. As Mr. Omer said to David Copperfield — 


THE LETTER 


139 


“ Fashions are like human beings. They come in nobody knows 
when, why, or how 7 ; and they go out nobody know 7 s when, why, 
or how 7 .” 

7. The last chance you will ever have to get the works of Jack 
London free is now 7 yours. 

Concluding Paragraphs 

1. But remember, too, we’ve only a few 7 of those free sets of 
Jack London left, and w r e will have to make it “First come, first 
served”; so if you w r ant one for your library, send in your card now. 

2. A student who wishes to enroll at this season should be sure 
to get his application in at an early date and thus avoid the delay 
occasioned by being too late to have one of the available seats 
assigned. 

3. The card herewith is for your convenience. Will you fill it 
in and mail it now. 

4. Put your name on the enclosed card and drop it in the mail. 
Do it now! You have no time to w 7 aste. 

5. Mail the enclosed card immediately for full information. 

6. Don’t w 7 ait to draw a check. Mail the attached card NOW. 
This is your last chance to save almost tw r enty-five per cent on 
the price you usually pay your newsdealer. Do it now 7 and be 
glad. 

7. Read that again — and again. Then w r hen you have con¬ 
vinced yourself that Efficiency is what you need — that Efficiency 
will enable j 7 ou to obtain the many things that now seem out of 
your reach — send in your application. 

Your first lesson in Personal Efficiency will go forward immedi¬ 
ately upon its receipt. 

8. The remaining sets are going fast, and unless I have your 
subscription at a very early date, the chances are you will be 
disappointed. 

PRACTICE 

1. You have inserted one of these advertisements in the For 
Sale column of the newspaper. James G. Cross, 127 Main Street, 
asks for more detailed information about the property. Write 
his letter. 


140 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


DODGE sedan; perfect condition; must 
sell; any demonstration ._ 

BARGAIN 

8 rooms and bath, steam heat, sun pailor, 
glass poich, 4 bedrooms, music loom, la r ge 
living room; open fireplace, garage; plot 
75x150. _ 

IMMEDIATE POSSESSION, ten rooms, 
two baths, fireplaces: «large plot. _ 

SMALL HOUSE, six rooms; every 
modern convenience._ 

CONTENTS modern five-room apartment, 
reasonable. ___ 

BUICK in good condition; repainted; new 
tires._ 

CONTENTS of artistically furnished 
eight-room house; used only a year. 


2. Reply to Mr. Cross’s letter. 

3. Write a letter to induce the reader to buy an encyclopedia, 
percolator, couch hammock, adding machine, bulldog, stock in a 
silver mine, filing cabinet, fountain pen, new pencil, piano player, 
camera, set of books, mimeograph, multigraph, aluminum boiler, 
hat, shoes, or other article, or to subscribe for a magazine. 

4. Write a follow-up letter to be mailed two weeks later. 

5. Write a sales letter advertising a book you have read this term. 

6. You have been appointed salesman for the Champion 
Vacuum Cleaner. The selling points of this particular cleaner, 
in addition to the usual advantages of vacuum cleaners in general, 
are a very durable and economical motor, low price ($35), which 
includes all attachments for special work, and a patented device 
that will pick up threads and small pieces of paper. Write a 
circular letter to be sent to your prospective buyers. — Regents. 

7. You wish to purchase a typewriter, electric washer, auto¬ 
mobile, phonograph, piano, vacuum cleaner, refrigerator, stove, 
rug, kitchen cabinet, electric ironer, or fireless cooker. Write to 
the Pittsburgh Gage & Supply Company, 3010 Liberty Street, 
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, asking definite questions about the 
Gainaday washer, or write for information to a company manu¬ 
facturing another of these articles. 

8. Write the company’s reply. 

9. To increase the circulation of the school paper, write a 
letter to be mailed to every graduate. 












THE LETTER 


141 


Other Types of Business Letters 

PRACTICE 

Jot down points to be kept in mind in writing each type of letter. 
Don’t omit the outline by paragraphs. 

1. In a letter to the Lost and Found Department of the trolley 
company, describe accurately a package, bag, umbrella, or other 
article you left on a car; tell precisely where and when \mu left 
it; and ask whether it has been turned in at the Lost and Found 
office. 

2. The Literary Digest is published by Funk & Wagnalls, 354 
Fourth Avenue, New York City. Assuming that you are a sub¬ 
scriber to this magazine, ask the company to change your address 
for the summer vacation. Be definite. 

3. Two weeks ago you ordered from the American Book Com¬ 
pany, Cincinnati, Ohio, a copy of Guerber’s Myths of Greece and 
Rome. The book hasn't reached you. You need it as a reference 
book. Write a hurry-up letter. 

4. Write to your congressman, senator, or assemblyman to 
convince or persuade him to support or oppose a bill before Con¬ 
gress or the state legislature. 

5. For your father or mother write an excuse for your absence 
from school or an explanation of your failure to prepare a lesson. 

6. Write to a transportation company or express company 
about discourteous treatment, personal injury, damage to property, 
or loss of baggage. Write the reply of the company. 

7. You are spending the Christmas vacation with your aunt. 
Write to the postmaster of your town or city, asking that your 
mail be forwarded. 

8. Write to Jones, Grant & Company, 119 Second Street, 
Lynn, Massachusetts, asking why you have not received the 
three hundred pairs of shoes ordered three weeks ago. Explain 
why you will have to telegraph a cancellation of the order if 
delivery is longer delayed. 

9. Write a local merchant a letter asking him to correct a 
mistake in a bill just sent you. Make clear what the mistake is. 

10. A month ago you bought goods to the amount of $325.50 



142 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


from the Standard Shirt Manufacturers, 523 River Street, Troy, 
New York. Five days later you returned goods to the amount 
of $12.25. You are today sending them a check for $310.12 in 
payment of the bill, less 1 % discount. Y rite an appropriate 
letter to accompany the check. — Regents. 

11. The president of the Bergwall Oil Company, 247 Madison 
Avenue, New York City, has known you for several years and 
writes to get your opinion of one of your classmates who has 
applied to him for a position. Write a letter of recommendation. 

12. Write to Dieges & Clust, 15 John Street, New York City, 
about class pins. Ask for designs and prices. 

13. Write to a farmer to arrange for his supplying your family 
with eggs, butter, apples, peaches, or potatoes. 

14. As manager of a school team write to another school to 
arrange a game. Be specific about place, time, expenses, and 
officials. 

15. Request a copy of a safe-investment booklet sent free for 
advertising purposes by The Title Guarantee and Trust Company, 
175 Remsen Street, Brooklyn, New York. 

16. Resign from a club or office, giving convincing reasons for 
your withdrawal. 

17. Write to the principal, requesting or urging some action 
for the welfare of the pupils and the school. 

18. Request a catalog, recommendation, or room reservation 
in a dormitory or hotel. 

19. Subscribe for a magazine. 

20. Write to the mayor or another city or town official, urging 
that he exert his influence in favor of better schools, school build¬ 
ings, police protection, street cleaning, gas, parks, or another 
improvement. 

21. As secretary of a club write a postcard notice of the next 
meeting, a letter requesting some one to address the club, and a 
letter thanking some person for a service to the club. 

22. Write to the president of the Alumni Association, urging 
the establishment of a fund to help needy pupils. Explain why 
the fund is needed. Suggest a plan for raising the money and 
administering the fund. 

23. Write a letter of appreciation to some one who has addressed 


THE LETTER 


143 


the pupils or been of service to the school in some other way. Only 
the best letter will be mailed. 

24. Before mailing a business letter you have written at home 
on your own account or for your father or mother, show it to your 
teacher. 

Friendly Letter 

Headmg, Salutation, Complimentary Close 

1. The punctuation of the heading may be open or close. 

2. The address and date may be placed after the body 
of the letter. Form 1 is much more common than Form 2. 

Form 1 

527 CCv-& / vlu& 

FL&hvvo-'ybtl /'flu, cA&w* U<y\Jo 
fawAicevy- f 7, //2 3 

Ji&av TTdw'UUMy, 


Co i c/vcU C lJ. yO-'K'lAs, 
/fcihv-&u 


J8&GVL TTht'i'vciy, 


Form 2 


CoVcLlceltlf yO'll'LQs, 
/fcebv&u Tray. 

527- Le.ylevt& & 

RU/i 'WLancl /fill, c /(cau Ifo-e/o 

^amAicuiy / 7, 1723 






144 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


3. Don’t omit the date. Never omit your address unless 
you are sure that the person to whom you are writing 
knows it. In any case'place your address on the envelope 
to insure its return if it does not reach the person written to. 

4. Use a comma after the salutation. 

5. The salutation and complimentary close are more 
cordial than those of a business letter. Correct salutations 


are — 


Dear Walt, Dear old Dad, 

Dear Uncle Jack, My dear little Lucy, 

Dear Mrs. Wilson, Dearest Mother, 

6. The following are examples of the complimentary 
close: 


Sincerely yours, 
Cordially yours, 

Yours ever, 

Your affectionate friend, 


Faithfully yours, 
Affectionately your brother, 
Sincerely your friend, 

Your loving sister, 


7. The address of the person written to is omitted unless 
he is almost a stranger or occupies a position of honor. In 
that case the name and address are generally placed at the 
end of the letter. 

//S ISoytMo-n 

fSo-Mon, T/'icu&Q/GC&fiufr&ttfc 
Jcmnci'iy Z, 1^23 

Jf&cvb Jtm. (tlci'iL&to-n, 


l/<yiiVQy v &i y tvu f i/y 

■jtcvnv&Qy c/a/iQsO-ni' 

Jbv. Z/MZlvcvnv J3. danfMon 
(do-t'UAvdMcc lAsnJyn&XAAZy 

/ / 6 tk fftu&M, Ifovk, (/HZy- 





THE LETTER 


145 


Body 

1. Don't begin with a hackneyed phrase like “ I have ‘ 
nothing else to do,” or “ I have often thought of writing 
to you but — 

2. The prime purpose of a friendly letter, which is the 
best substitute for conversation, is to entertain. Show 
that you value your friend by writing a wide-awake, original, 
painstaking letter. A clear, vigorous, natural, chatty style 
is more effective than a showy, pretentious, bookish one. 
Keep your troubles to yourself unless there is a good reason 
for telling them. 

3. Never write in anger. If you write an important 
letter late at night, reread it in the morning before sending 
it. When in doubt about what you have written, tear the 
letter up. 

4. Friendly letters often go far beyond personal matters 
that concern only the writer and the person addressed and 
include narratives, descriptions, and discussions on a wide 
range of subjects. 

Aim — To Entertain 

'/*/■ (Zv-&'KU& 

RioAmond /MC, c4&u l IjoxA 
&&<?. &wi (i/<?, / 22 

A&a/b Aoiot/iy, 

dtywdA&& U/i& cviv-pul, Jbot! €xo&iy tim& A woint 
to- wuit& cv l&tt&i, i/b Qsom& t&mxyyv that A miy/it 

bVwcLu Ol tittt& VIOI&. dm t/l&n tA& < 2 ASUs&t tfyCl&tl&W/ 
don't outw-ooub ocj4ni<ma my v-dibcont &nd&avo / m. If.&Q/- 
t&bday J hold to maA& a o/j&emk to cj&t &cmA (ooy owed 
atit to yuo& ci Cj/iidvtzb to tk& Red (tlioon. A w-afr ynvte 
Jnoud O'jf 'Wiy&eljf and thought oncv&ly &v-&vy on& w-ont ct 
ywu-& tnoo ox tAi&& yiccutem; (ouit my t&cudi&h oatd only, 




146 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


“J daw't thcwk yaw wa / wld yet many yieactecos with 
that otfeeeeh’ l^aus cam cmayiwe haw- a-mall <t felt. 

CC& (hhctostmaos La* weoct 'W'edweosda/y, <J thauyht <J 
had hettec yet hwoy cartel huy Qsome yif. la, (yut yweow 
what ha/jatjiewed ta me aw my way ta the &ity. jheat 
aos <J yat w / /ti ta the otceet at the dewwoAytwawta dtatlow, 
<J telt eta- tj' the heet aj- my Oshae wem dauyrt tw a hate, 
awd whew <J laaked daww <J Osaw dray taea- jroiwtlwy wj& 
tawaicUs the achy aos a, cawae claeos, <J taak awothec atstjd 
cartel waos o/wie that thece warr Qsamethtwy wcawy, jac a 
watt otwek iwta my jaat. <J laaked hawks aaed d-aw my 
heel about twa yacdos away jwam my taeos. dSv-exy-bedy 

waos ylyylimy, (yut c? - well, <J jelt tike a awe-cewt 

jsteee! c fa <J had ta came home, teyewy ta htde a 
datwty little taat hehewd awothec awe. 

Jla yaw expect ta ya claww (couth thvos tthclatmaos, 
Sb-oeothyf c? oshall weuec j^acyet the jyew we had loot 
yeac Iw aid 'Uecyimla. 

<J thvwk J Oshall estate waw awd ot/wdy a little mace, 
aw uo/Usal. Z Occte oxo-aw. 

Itawc lov-iwy pitewd, 
c fico/oe 


tear Robert, 


Aim — To Persuade 

b-33 falyhth oftieet 
Jb-iiluth, I'T'dmweosata 

tJtamh / h, ft PS 


c/ waw cectaiwly v-ecy ha/jabja/y ta ceceiwe your lawy 
letter aw oficday awd ylacl ta hear that yao.ee onathex- 
awd father ace yettrny a a mu eh ewjay/nrewt jyram 
t/i eC'h o-outhexie tcitja . clo claubt yoov meow them v-ex.y 


THE LETTER 


147 


mu&k. J mad& kaot& to anow-&o youo l&tt&o, j-ov 
J nao cyo&atiy o/uvfbeto&d and, to oay tk& C&aat, teoukl&d 
to not& tk& u&A/y entd&nt otcpo oj -i i nha/j&/J& tn&QdO and 
d&oj^ato tkeoucjhmit. 

cAoio, Id ok, t ly- to- 6-r.- -^ati-cait and- -u/nd&va-tdmd tJiaa 
UXM& o&A/)non oj mtn&. Cm ajoaod tkcit you kao&n t 
atta&k&d youo noooo&o on tk& vtcjkt way. Ijon oay tkcit 
you juot oan ' t I&oaao Cke&nck oo (onaltok . Look k&o&, 
Rok&et t. tkay loo; C o& known you tony &nouyk to knooo 
tkcit you can l&aon anytkoncy oj you mak& ujo youo 
mind to. tkk& tkoncy tkcit you n&&d oo oyot&m. Rut 
youo oohool nook on ci kuoom&oso kaoto, and youo joook- 
l&mo not t ooon k& oolv-&d. €j couoo& qaic&&oo m&ano 
nook, (nut tkat oo oom&tkony tkcit n&o&o knit anykocty 
and joom nkock d nen&o oaau y-ou jlonck. Cto joo 
Cke&n&k, nook ufo a yooci v-o&akulaey ky tii/tny to ojn&ak 
ot noth youo jot&ndo outotd& oj tk& Cke&nck utaoo. Ijou 
&an alnayo jund oom& on& ooko to ntllvny to toy out 
tkat kd&a juot joo tk& jun oj ot. Cto jao^ oo <J &an o&&, 
a joke amount oj otudy and a yo&at d&al oj common 
oono& nolt caooy anykocty tkeouyk (onytooJv. 

ct/i& omjoootant joowvit on tkoo oyot&m fit on oo to joot 
a d&jonot& tom& joo kom&noek. tkoo onatan&&, don't 
C&00& youo nook untoi dunday■ nocykt, kut jenook ot on 
Ckeoday oo tkat yono can o&alty e/vi'[oy youo n&&k-&nd 
and y&t &noucyk ol&&jo on dnnday nocjkt. 

Ctnotk&o tkiny to ockool and outood& acttvoto&o. 
cjk& onty kooykt jouot in youo l&tt&o woo tk& a&cnunt oj 
youo nook on tk& onionmvncy and yun t&oorio, youo cluk 
&l&ctoono, and done &o. Let m& t&li yon they do not 
jot on nitk yood ockool nook, aud you kuon, otd j&llon, 
on tkat fdaotnt <J ouykt to knorn nkat Cm talkiooy 
akout. 

cAcon ot to ttm& joo m& to otojo. d j&ao tkcit d kan& 
mad& tkto o&ad too 'WLAiok tok& a l&ot- / uo& nken <J o&alty 


148 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


vn&an it to- (o& onl/y QsOvrv& adv~Ub& that cj tvav-& pyiond to 
4-fi- 'JoA&tty bound. ZOdvot&v-eAs yo^o do, food, don't yiv-& 
'lojb. €u£Aythdny jaaotoatoty Looter da/vd and Con&bovn& 
td&b& ctayb, did <J'vn onoo& t/vat ib foottly d/n& to tiv& 
a6-b&n&& oj' yoivb xrvotd&b and dad. do yon v& we/nvd&b th& 
old bcoyiny w-& ub&d to hao&, "ZOd&n you'v& do von on 
yo^ii/b Iw&d, cyivn jrnit Ob haod Ob yon oan ' ’ ? cdt’b a 

QsU/s& &nv&/ 

dn youAi 'n&oct l&tt&v to yon/o jtvav&ntb / jnt&ab& v&yn&wi - 
d&v V7b& to t/v&nu, and don’t fox cot to vovit& and t&ll 
yn-& ivoio yon av& oovnioty aloncf. 

Isjonv old t&avnAnad&j 


c iyyoincf' 


PRACTICE 

1. Convince a friend who at the end of his third year in a neigh¬ 
boring high school has been offered a position with a fair salary 
and excellent opportunity for advancement that he should complete 
his high-school course. 

2. A friend coming to visit you will arrive during school hours. 
Explain clearly to him how to reach your home from the railroad 
station. Use a diagram. Instead, you may tell him that your 
brother, whom he doesn’t know, will meet him. Explain where 
your brother will be waiting. Add a description so vivid that the 
friend will recognize your brother in the crowd. 

3. To a friend away on a vacation write about the new 
neighbors, their dogs, parties, phonograph, children, automobile, 
voices. 

4. Write a lively account of a surprise party; a picnic in the 
woods; good times at camp; a day’s outing with the Boy Scouts 
or Campfire Girls; a vacation experience; a trip to the seashore, 
country, or city; the first day of school; a high-school game or 
other happening; news of family or friends; a movie or play. 

5. You have a friend who never reads a book. Write a letter 
to persuade him to read a supplementary book you have especially 
enjoyed this term. 



THE LETTER 149 

6. Thank a friend for the gift of a year’s subscription to a 
magazine you particularly enjoy. 

7. \\ rite to a boy or girl of your age in New Zealand, Japan, 
Denmark, or Brazil about life in an American high school. 

8. A friend wants ideas for entertaining. Tell her about a 
unique party you have just given or attended. 

9. Ask your uncle about the choice of a vocation. Tell him 
the vocations you are considering and your likes and dislikes. 

10. Invite a friend to spend next Saturday and Sunday with 
you. Also for the friend accept the invitation. 

11. Thank your hostess for a pleasant week-end visit. Include 
an entertaining account of an incident of the journey home. Or 
thank a friend for a Christmas gift. 

12. Ask a friend to go with you to a summer camp or on an 
excursion or outing. Be definite about the time, place, distance, 
expense, clothing, and equipment. 

13. Write a letter of congratulation, sympathy, apology, or 
introduction. Supply full details. 

14. Ask advice about joining a society or club, electing or 
discontinuing a school subject, working after school or on Saturday, 
or trying for a school team. Or ask for information for an essay 
or debate. Reply. 

15. Invite a friend to a baseball or basketball game, a school 
play or entertainment, or a movie party. 

16. Write to persuade your father or mother to let you extend 
your visit a few days or to visit another friend. 

17. A friend has asked you how to refinish furniture, prevent 
moths, get rid of caterpillars, raise tomato plants, or improve his 
written or oral composition. Write the reply. 

18. Arrange to meet a friend. Make clear the time and place. 

19. Write a cheery, sympathetic letter to a sick friend or 
classmate. 

20. Write to a cousin in Florida about northern winter sports 
or to a cousin in Minnesota about southern winter sports. 

21. In an accident a hundred miles from home your car is 
damaged and you are slightly injured. Telegraph your parents. 
In the telegram cross out every useless word, but omit no word 
needed for clearness. Write a letter giving additional information. 


150 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


22. Write to your English teacher about outside activities, 
books, plays, movies, sports, school fun and tasks, your plan for 
vacation, next year, college, after-school life, or other topics. 

Formal Notes 

Formal notes are sent as invitations to weddings, recep¬ 
tions, dinner parties, and the like. The hostess’s card with 
the time and kind of the entertainment written on it is 
frequently used in inviting to an afternoon party and is 
increasingly serving as a substitute for the formal note. 
The answer should be similar in wording to the original 
note. In an engraved invitation short centered lines are 
used. In the pen-written reply the lines may be longer. 

Invitation 

ovnd 1IK&. ja/WL&Q, fkanvittoav 
'l&Cj/lL&bt tk& fol&CLQAW& O-fi 
?V{b. and TVtvoy. 0 / &avnjnauu 

at dtnn&v an, 1 Ot dn&&day, d&a&n-vk&b tva&t^tk, 

at qO/OO a &ta@,k» 
dta&nty-i'&n&n !3&&&k dt'i&et 

Acceptance 

Tflv. and TUbb. danvki& o&ae/Jtit unitk ^t&aoAo'L& tk& 
kind innitatian ta disn& witk TViv. a/nd farn&Qs 

/'fanniltan an 'Itl&dn&Qsday, jamtk, at QAnc 

a' cla&k. 

/ l I8 l / } / labnAAacjikd& Jtvisn& 

J$&€,&vtk&v ii'Vat 



THE LETTER 


151 


Regret 

?Vlv. and Ty'ivb. ldaArdol& v&yv&t tkat a jaaeAHani^ &rufcuj!&- 
nv&nt fov&V'&ntQs tkemv jaovv o&&&fitLny ?8(v. and TRvq,-. 
/kaAvueito-nd kind invitation to dis)'i& w-itk tfi&m on 
lAt&dne&dau, Z&o&mk&v t/MO&ljtk. 

fk-8 ?Tko\AiAAUfQ.Zd& dvvo& 

*b-&®£mk& / b jisiQZ 


CHAPTER IX 


DESCRIPTION 

Picture making. The aim of the descriptive writer is to 
present to the mind by means of language such an idea of 
an object or scene as the reader would have conceived had 
he viewed it himself. Description is word painting. 

Sensation. Do not confuse picturing and explaining. To 
paint a vivid word picture of an object or scene, it is neces¬ 
sary to suggest to another how the thing strikes the eye or 
ear. Occasionally we describe also what we touch, smell, 
or taste. These five senses furnish all descriptive material, 
for description has as its subject matter sensations. The 
statement, “ Toto the clown is a serious sort of man off 
the stage, ” is interesting but does not belong in a descrip¬ 
tion of him as a clown. The sentence, “ Her face is 
swarthy because she has just returned from a month’s 
vacation at Asbury Park,” is only half description. The 
subordinate clause explains why she is sunburned instead 
of telling what the writer sees. 

How to Picture 

1. Observe. Look carefully at the details and fix them in 
the memory. The average pupil can’t describe accurately 
from memory his breakfast table, home, or school building. 

2. Describe from a favorable point of view. No one sets 
up his camera and snaps pictures at random. 

(1) Sometimes the whole object or scene may be described 
from one point of view, as the painter draws his picture. 
Picture only what the artist would see from the chosen spot. 

152 


DESCRIPTION 


153 


(2) Sometimes the scene may be presented in a succession 
of aspects, as it would appear to a person if he were moving 
along through it. Notify the readers when the point of 
view is changed. 

* 

Example. If one is to describe a town, he may first take up his 
position at the central square, or at the head of the principal street. 
Thence he pictures the direction of the main street or streets, and 
gives an outline of the whole. Next he may locate the parks and 
chief public buildings. Having thus established a lucid outline, he 
may adopt the traveler’s method, and, starting from the center or 
from the main street, he may go along each street, describing its 
buildings in detail. 

3. As a rule , present first such a picture as one would get 
from a glance at the object. The passenger on an express 
train, for example, notices the size, shape, and color of the 
buildings he passes. 

4. Decide whether you wish just to take a snapshot or, 
like most artists, emphasize a central idea or feeling, called 
an impression. The description of an office may produce 
the impression of neatness, untidiness, prosperity, system, 
or confusion. 

5. Decide how ynany and what details will make your 
picture most vivid. Select the most striking or interesting 
features. If you present every detail observed, you may 
weary the reader or hearer and also puzzle him because he 
will be unable to hold the parts of the picture in mind long 
enough to put them together. The picture in his mind will 
resemble a cut-up picture of which some pieces have been 
lost. In an impressionistic description select the details 
that give the idea or feeling desired. If you are describing 
an untidy schoolroom in which the books on one desk are 
neatly arranged, either picture this desk as a contrast with 
the rest of the room or omit it because it does not change 
the impression of untidiness produced by the room. 

6. Arrange details in the order of observation. The first 
detail observed is the most striking or unusual one. After 


154 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


especially striking details have been presented, the order 
of observation is commonly the space order: foreground to 
background, top to bottom, center to circumference, or 
right to left. 


EXERCISE 

Arrange these details for pictures: 

(1) Roof, foundation, attic window, front entrance, chimney, 
other windows, front porch, entrance walk, front lawn, flower box 
on front porch, evergreens in front of house, elm tree near front 
porch. 

(2) Hat, shoes, nose, socks, face, trousers, hair, ears, collar, 
coat, necktie, mouth, face, spectacles. 

7. Use connectives. Such phrases as on the right, just 
beyond, somewhat lower , in the distance , farther to the left, 
and just in front of help the mind to put the parts of the 
picture together. 

8. For vividness use good descriptive words, figures of 
speech, and comparisons. The two common causes of 
failure in description are lack of observation and lack of 
words with which to express what is seen. Search out 
verbs that picture, and thus avoid piling up descriptive 
adjectives. If you wish to describe an animal your hearers 
or readers have never seen, compare it with an animal they 
have seen. A comparison presents a complete picture to 
be changed rather than the parts of a picture to be put 
together. 

9. When possible, describe in action. For pure description 
the action should be limited to a moment. Commonly, 
however, the short story and the novel, like the moving 
picture, combine story and picture so closely and effectively 
that it is both difficult and useless to separate the descrip¬ 
tion from the narration. 


DESCRIPTION 


155 


EXERCISES 

1. Add to each of the following lists. Perhaps you remember an 
expressive descriptive adjective used by Dickens, Thackeray, Poe, 
Hawthorne, Kipling, Stevenson, or another writer. 

Eyes — snappy, staring, twinkling, almond-shaped, baggy, 
puffy, soulful, sad, piercing, keen, glassy, hazel, deep-set, bulging, 
vacant, protruding, wistful, expressionless, laughing, bright, 
searching, fiery, mischievous, bewitching, dancing, dreamy, dark 
and melancholy. 

Nose — stubby, aquiline, Roman, Grecian, pug, thick, sharp, 
hooked, button, crooked. 

Hair — golden, flaxen, glossy, stubborn, spiky, kinky, auburn, 
shaggy, silvery, scraggly, wavy, abundant, wiry, silky, fluffy, 
snarly, disheveled, unkempt. 

Face — haggard, wan, happy, ghastly, discontented, flushed, 
drawn, ruddy, bloated, oval, smooth-shaven, pallid, impassive, 
plump, pleasant, droll, jolly, beaming, expressive, sober. 

Voice — musical, rasping, grating, mellow, melodious, husky, 
resonant, gruff, shrill, nasal, rough, squeaky, hoarse, breathy, 
penetrating, quavering, cultivated, refined, monotonous, harsh, 
throaty, well-modulated. 

Hands — brawny, callous, clammy, clumsy, plump, grimy, 
muscular, nervous, chubby, horny. 

Dress or clothing — threadbare, flashy, immaculate, shabby, 
becoming, conspicuous, flimsy, fluffy, gaudy, summery. 

Walk — military, graceful, brisk, stiff, ungainly, awkward. 

2. Prepare lists of words to describe the chin, the teeth, the 
body, and the general appearance. 

3. Substitute picturesque verbs for as many as possible of the 
adjectives in the lists: snappy-snap; staring-stare; twinkling- 
twinkle. 

4. Most figures of speech picture; as, “I want a ship that’s 
westward bound to plough the rolling sea,” “The waves beside 
them danced,” “The cavalry swept past the base of the hill,” 
“The blackening wave is edged with white.” Find five such 
figures. Write five. 


156 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


Criticism of Five Descriptions 

1. What evidence of keen observation is there in each 
description? 

2. Is the point of view fixed or changing? 

3. Does the writer picture first what one would see at a glance? 

4. Is the description a snapshot or an impressionistic picture? 
Prove your answer. 

5. What details are introduced? Are too many or too few 
details used? 

6. How are the details arranged? Is a better arrangement 
possible? 

7. What connectives are used? Are others needed? 

8. What vivid descriptive words, figures of speech, or com¬ 
parisons are made use of? What words report sensations—tell 
what the writer saw, heard, touched, smelled, or tasted? What 
picture-making verbs are used? 

9. Has the author described the character in action? If so, 
is the action limited to a moment? 

10. What is the chief merit of each? Point out the faults in 
the three pupil themes. 

11. Which of the pupil themes is best? Why? Which is the 
poorest? Why? 


1. Ichabod Crane 

The cognomen of Crane was not inapplicable to his person. He 
was tall, but exceedingly lank, with narrow shoulders, long arms 
and legs, hands that dangled a mile out of his sleeves, feet that 
might have served for shovels, and his whole frame most loosely 
hung together. His head was small, and flat at top, with huge ears, 
large green glassy eyes, and a long snipe nose, so that it looked like 
a weathercock perched upon his spindle neck, to tell which way the 
wind blew. To see him striding along the profile of a hill on a 
windy day, with his clothes bagging and fluttering about him, one 
might have mistaken him for the genius of famine descending upon 
the earth, or some scarecrow eloped from a cornfield. — Washington 
Irving, 


DESCRIPTION 


157 


2. Uriah Heep 

When the pony-chaise stopped at the door, and my eyes were 
intent upon the house, I saw a cadaverous face appear at a small 
window on the ground floor (in a little round tower that formed one 
side of the house), and quickly disappear. The low arched door 
then opened, and the face came out. It was quite as cadaverous as 
it had looked in the window, though in the grain of it there was that 
tinge of red which is sometimes to be observed in the skins of red- 
haired people. It belonged to a red-haired person — a youth of 
fifteen, as I take it now, but looking much older, whose hair was 
cropped as close as the closest stubble; who had hardly any eye¬ 
brows, and no eyelashes, and eyes of a red brown; so unsheltered 
and unshaded, that I remember wondering how he went to sleep. 
He was high-shouldered and bony; dressed in decent black, with a 
white wisp of a neckcloth; buttoned up to the throat; and had a 
long, lank, skeleton hand, which particularly attracted my attention 
as he stood at the pony’s head, rubbing his chin with it, and looking 
up at us in the chaise. — Dickens. 

3. Full Dress 

A soldier in the full-dress uniform of the Royal Guard to the 
King of Denmark is in uniform indeed. His trousers are of a light 
blue, with white stripes flanking the sides. His coat, the center of 
attraction, is a bright vermilion, just about the color of newly spilt 
blood. The buttons decorating the coat are of bright, polished 
silver. His sword hangs on his left side suspended on a white leather 
strap crossing his right shoulder. To top it all, he carries on his 
head a hat. Imagine an elongated bearskin muff turned upside 
down, and you have it. This is firmly secured to his head by a 
very smart silver chin strap. 

He is a dazzling and impressive sight on a bright, sunny day. 
As he marches goose-step to the stirring martial music, small boys 
look at him with intermingled awe, envy, and admiration. “What 
more could one wish,” think they, “than to be a member of the 
Royal Guard to the King of Denmark and march through the streets 
in full-dress uniform?” 

4. A Lecturer 

The best prohibition lecture I ever heard was given by a short, 
fat, drunken man at the race track. He wore a heavy fur driving 
coat thrown wide open and had tossed away his hat and gloves. He 


158 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


stood uncertainly on the seat of his cutter, supported by an equally 
intoxicated friend. The tears streamed down his full red face and 
froze in his white mustache. As he preached, his bleary, blood-shot 
eyes rolled wildly upward and then closed, but opened when he 
became eloquent. His bald pate was fiery red from alcohol and 
cold. His arms waved about like those of a windmill, and his voice 
was choked now and then with sobs, as he praved for, lectured, 
cursed, and pitied his amused hearers. 

5. The Bell Boy 

Upon entering the Lakeview Hotel, I heard the clerk call “Front!” 
Immediately a comical little chap stood in front of me. The bright 
brass buttons on his coat caught my eye. There were about ten 
along the front of his jacket, one on each shoulder, and three on 
each cuff. He wore a flaming red suit. The jacket was very tight 
and reached down to his hips. The trousers were long and tight- 
fitting also. On the side of his head was a red hat, which was held 
there by a strap under his chin. His bright blue eyes, which I 
could see although he wore tortoise-shell glasses, were a fine contrast 
with the red suit. His ears, which seemed to stick out as if they were 
pasted on to the sides of his head, added to his comical appearance. 
Automatically he stooped down, took the bags, walked over to 
the staircase, and guided me to my room. 


ORAL AND WRITTEN PRACTICE 

1. Without mentioning his name, describe one of the following 
so vividly that members of the class will guess whom you are describ¬ 
ing. Use some of the adjectives and verbs in your lists. 

1. A well-known person (living or dead). 2. A policeman. 
3. A mayor. 4. A lawyer. 5. An author. 6. A general. 7. A 
statesman. 8. A nurse. 9. A king. 10. A governor. 11. An 
Indian. 12. A war veteran. 13. A huckster. 14. A doctor. 
15. An old man. 16. A ticket-seller or flower-seller. 17. A con¬ 
ductor. 18. An umpire. 19. The proprietor of a news stand. 
20. A baseball player. 21. A judge. 22. A newsboy. 23. An 
orator. 24. A postman or milkman. 25. A peanut or toy 
vender. 26. Woodrow Wilson. 27. Lloyd George. 28. Pershing. 
29. Roosevelt. 30. Lincoln. 31. Washington. 32. Longfellow. 


DESCRIPTION 


159 


33. Shakespeare. 34. Harding. 35. A prosperous banker. 
36. Hughes. 37. Bryan. 38. A Chinese laundryman. 39. A 
beggar. 40. An organ grinder. 

2. Profiting by criticism and suggestion, write the description. 


PRACTICE 

It is easier to describe the unusual than the commonplace. In 
writing a word picture of one of the following, use the description of 



Ichabod Crane as a model. Test your work by the description 
rules. 

1. The town character. 2. The clown at the circus. 3. The 
queerest-looking person I ever saw. 4. A portly old gentleman. 
5. A giant. 6. A freakish artist. 7. An unusual immigrant 
just arrived. 8. A soapbox orator. 9. The meanest man I know. 
10. A tramp. 11. A masquerade costume. 12. An eccentric 
man. 13. A dude. 14. A flashily dressed girl. 

A Deserted Farm 

Last summer I saw an interesting farmhouse that must have 
been a hundred years old. It looked like a large, oblong, wooden 
box with a cover that came to a point. There were in it about ten 






160 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


windows. These were guarded by faded shutters, attached by rusty 
hinges that threatened to give way any minute. The porch in front 
of the house was supported by old, rickety wooden pillars, which 
slanted as if ready to tumble to the earth. A neighbor’s cat sat on 
the red-brick chimney, patiently waiting to catch some chimney 
swifts that had unwisely built a nest there. 

The lawn that surrounded the house was overgrown with tall 
grasses and weeds. A few plants bloomed timidly here and there, 
as if afraid to show their weak little blossoms. A large tangled 
mass of stickers and thorns, which had once been a wild rose bush, 
climbed blindly around the pillars of the porch. Away toward one 
side stood a lonesome horse chestnut tree, under which were some 
old benches. 

Behind the house was a barn so old that one half of it had caved 
in and the other half looked as if it would soon follow. 

PRACTICE 

A Building or Structure 

Describe one of the following for the recognition of the class. Pre¬ 
pare your picture so carefully that any person who would recognize 
a snapshot of the building will know what you are describing. Apply 
rules 1,2,3, 5, 6, 7, and S. 

1. The library. 2. A railway station. 3. A church. 4. The 
high-school building. 5. The town hall. 6. A statue. 7. The 
oldest house in town. 8. A store. 9. A wigwam. 10. A deserted 
house. 11. A fisherman’s cabin. 12. A seaside cottage. 13. A 
hotel. 14. A bungalow. 15. The Lincoln Memorial. 16. The 
White House. 17. The Congressional Library. 18. The 
Colosseum. 19. Grant’s Tomb. 20. The Woolworth Building. 
21. The Columbia University Library. 22. Another building or 
structure. 

Write the description. 


A Scene 

The description of a scene or event is rendered more 
picturesque by giving the exact time and place. 

Place at, or near, the beginning a comprehensive state- 


> 

UI 

* 

t—I 

m 

go 

> 

ui 

> 

W 

o 

K 


O 

o 

p 

H 

c+- 

CD 

CO 

<< 

O 

co 

1 

co" 

co 

CD 

CL 

CD 

>-J 

E- 

p 

>-* 

o 

p 

Cl 

CO 



161 








162 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 

ment or general plan. This outline should be clear and 
simple. For example, Victor Hugo, in describing the battle 
of Waterloo, says, “ It was fought on a piece of ground 
resembling a capital A. The English were at the apex, 
the French at the feet, and the battle was decided about 
the center.” 

Riverside Drive on a Sunday Morning 

On a bright Sunday morning in early spring I am basking in the 
sunshine at the corner of 112th Street and Riverside Drive. On my 
right lies the Hudson, serene and still. Over it floats a soft, billow} 
cloud in an azure sky. On my left is a Chinese wall of apartment 
houses. 

On the walk, fat, red-cheeked youngsters, ail bundled up and 
blinking in the sun, make perilous journeys just within reach of the 
protecting hand of a nursemaid. Pekinese pups are also taking the 
air, and, like the babies, are constantly watched by their owners. 
A big-boned, good-natured Airedale is stalking by, nosing the ground. 
Farther down the street a Belgian police dog is making his tempestu¬ 
ous way along the walk, with but one aim — to break loose from the 
athletic woman who is holding tight to the leash. Near the tugging 
dog a little lady of six on roller skates struggles to retain her equilib¬ 
rium, almost recovers it, then goes crashing down. Beyond her a 
solitary young man strides along, taking no notice of dogs or girl. 
The benches lined along the walk are filled with women crocheting 
or reading the Sunday Times or a best seller and old men enjoying 
the movement, noise, sunshine, and beauty. 

PRACTICE 

Describe fur a boy or girl in Australia a still scene or a scene with 
action in it. Limit the action to a moment. Your purpose is to paint 
a picture, not to tell a story. 

1. An election night scene. 2. At the beach. 3. An exciting 
moment in a play, moving picture, or real life. 4. The subway 
or street car at rush hour. 5. The bargain counter. 6. The 
bleachers when Babe Ruth batted out a home run. 7. A spectac¬ 
ular football play. 8. A busy office or street corner. 9. Harvest¬ 
ing wheat. 10. The crowd coming from a factory. 11. The 
murder of Julius Caesar. 12. A fall. 13. A capture. 14. An 






A Marken Street Scene 















164 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


escape. 15. A wedding. 10. A market scene. 17. The toy 
department just before Christmas. 18. A fire scene. 19. A storm 
on the lake, river, or ocean. 20. An accident. 21. A riot. 
22. Dismissal of school. 23. A street parade. 24. A humorous 
scene. 25. A country fair. 26. The battlefield. 27. My favorite 
view. 28. The creek and old mill. 29. A farmyard. 30. A back 
yard. 31. The garden. 32. The picnic grounds. 33. A shipyard. 
34. A lumber camp. 35. Main Street on Saturday night. 36. Ten 
minutes before the bell rang. 

A Tornado 

While I was staying at the home of my uncle in Jonesboro, a 
small western town, in the early afternoon of a muggy, showery day, 
a cry of “Tornado” was raised. As I hurried to the street, I saw 
men running hither and yon, and mothers gathering their children 
and rushing them into the tornado cellars. A small group of men 
and women were watching the on-coming tornado; others were 
following the excited children into the cellars. In the distance a 
low-hanging, inky-black cloud writhed and dipped and swiftly 
formed a whirling funnel that roared like a freight train crossing a 
trestle. It was still miles away but was moving toward us rapidly. 
For half a minute I watched the racing, whirling, death-dealing 
pillar of dust and rubbish. Then as I turned and ran into the 
nearest cellar, the sky turned pitchy black and the roar of the 
tornado almost deafened me. 


PRACTICE 

Impressionistic Description 

Selecting any scene — schoolroom, office, hall, home, street, 
subway, landscape, baseball field — write a description to produce 
the impression of coziness, cleanliness, good taste, sorrow, happi¬ 
ness, discontent, melancholy, neatness, life and hustle, system, 
confusion, poverty, wealth, joy, care, carelessness, silence, heat, 
cold, wetness, dryness, gayety, loneliness, haste, comfort, strange¬ 
ness, storm, quiet, dejection, noise, wind, jollity, forlornness, 
snow. 

Have you applied rule 5? 


By Daubigny — Courtesy of the Metropolitan Museum 



165 







COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


166 

ORAL AND WRITTEN PRACTICE 

1. Describe for a blind boy or girl a picture in this book. Which 
of the nine rules have you applied? 

2. Describe another picture so vividly that the class can 
sketch it. 

3. Describe for your little brother or sister an animal in action: 
a bear taking his bath, a lion at dinner, a horse winning a race, 
a monkey at play, a kangaroo running, a cat watching for a mouse, 
an elephant pushing a circus tent or eating hay. 

4. Describe the assembly hall, a classroom, the school or 
public library, an attractive cellar, a grocery store, the interior 
of a barn, an attic, a beautiful, comfortable, or sanitary room. 
Which of the nine rules have you applied? 

5. You have lost your hat, coat, fountain pen, knife, bicycle, 
briefcase, a pencil, a book, a package, a dog, or a cat. Describe 
it for some one who is helping you to search for it or has charge 
of lost articles. Think what details will identify the article. 

6. Your little brother or sister has wandered away or been lost 
in a crowd. Describe the child to a policeman. 

7. Describe vividly an advertisement or poster that has 
attracted your attention. 

8. In describing a kitchen on a hot morning, a hayfield, a base¬ 
ball or football crowd, a busy office, a street corner, a parade, a 
delicatessen store, a mass meeting, or a bakery, appeal to senses 
other than sight. 

9. Entertain the class with a description of the faces you saw 
in a street car. 






Marlowe and Sothern in 


“ Twelfth Night” 


167 









CHAPTER X 


ARGUMENT 

Purpose. The purpose of argument is to change belief 
or secure desired action. In school debate the prime pur¬ 
pose is to win the decision of the judges. To win, however, 
the debater should convince the audience, for the judges 
are three selected members of the audience and commonly 
vote as the audience, if unprejudiced, would. In other 
arguments the purpose may be to sell tickets for a baseball 
game, to secure contributions for the Red Cross, to win 
votes for your candidate for the presidency of the Athletic 
Association, or to sell a book or a pair of shoes. In these 
cases belief is not enough. In other words, the argument 
must be both convincing and persuasive. 

Proof and assertion. The most common fault in argu¬ 
ment is assertion, mere “say-so,” without proof. Don’t 
say “ I think,” “ I believe,” “ It seems to me,” “ It is my 
opinion,” “ Statistics prove,” and “ Authorities on the 
subject say,” for these expressions suggest easy-going asser¬ 
tion without proof. Unless yoi^ are an expert or authority, 
the audience are not interested in your opinions or beliefs; 
they want the facts in the case. 

Of course complete, thorough-going, conclusive proof of 
any debatable proposition is extremely difficult. Really 
to argue at all, however, you must do more than state 
and restate the proposition and what you think about 
it; you must present facts, figures, quotations, maxims, 
theories, or comparisons to prove that your assertions 
are valid. 


168 


ARGUMENT 


169 


Preparedness and Peace 

This false philosophy that has brought Europe into this war will, 
in my judgment, bring into war any nation that adopts it. Europe 
has built its hope of peace upon a false foundation, upon the founda¬ 
tion of force and fear and terrorism; the only hope of peace that 
these European nations have had rested in the belief that each could 
terrorize the other into peace. 

It is a false philosophy; if you want to see how false it is, try 
it on a neighborhood. The big questions between nations are settled 
by the very same rules that we apply to neighborhoods. I will 
show you what this philosophy is, and then you can judge whether 
it can be expected to bring anything else except war. 

Suppose you have two farmers living side by side, good farmers, 
well-meaning farmers who wanted to be friends, and suppose they 
tried to maintain peace on the European plan, how would they go 
at it? One would go to the nearest town and buy the best gun he 
could find, and then he would put a notice in the paper saying that 
he loved his neighbor and that he had no thought of trespassing 
upon his neighbor’s rights; but that he was determined to defend 
his own rights and protect his honor at any cost, that he had secured 
the best gun in the market and that if his neighbor interfered with 
him, he would shoot him. Then suppose the neighbor went to town 
the next day and got him a better gun and, with the same frankness, 
consulted the newspaper and put in a similar notice explaining that 
he loved peace as well as his neighbor did but that he was just as 
determined to defend his own rights and protect his honor and that 
he had a better gun than his neighbor and that, if his neighbor 
crossed his line, he would kill him. And suppose then the first man, 
when he read that notice, went to town and got two guns and 
advertised that fact in the paper, and the second man, when he 
read it, went to town and got three guns, and so on, each alter¬ 
nately buying guns. What would be the result? Every undertaker 
in that vicinity would go out and become personally acquainted with 
the two men, because he would know there would be at least one 
funeral in that neighborhood. That is the European plan. One 
country gets a battleship and announces that it can blow any other 
battleship out of the water; then a rival nation gets a dreadnaught 
that can sink the battleship; then the first nation gets a super- 
dreadnaught; then they go to the dictionary and look for prefixes 
for the names of their battleships as they build them larger and 
larger; and they make guns larger and larger and they equip armies 


170 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


larger and larger, all the time talking about how much they love 
peace and all the while boasting that they are ready to fight. 

Go back to the time when they commenced to pass laws against 
the carrying of concealed weapons, and you can get all the material 
you want for a speech on preparedness, because the arguments made 
in favor of carrying revolvers can be put into the speeches made 
today in favor of preparedness, without changing a word. Did you 
ever hear of a man who wanted to carry a revolver to be aggressive? 
No, it was just to protect his right and defend his honor, especially 
his honor, but they found by experience that the man who carried a 
revolver generally carried with it a disposition to use it on slight 
provocation and a disposition to provoke its use by others. For 
the promotion of peace, every state in this union has abolished 
preparedness on the part of individuals because it did not preserve 
peace. It provoked trouble, and unless we can convince ourselves 
there is a moral philosophy applicable to nations that is just the 
opposite of the moral philosophy applied to individuals, we must 
conclude that, as the pistol-toting man is a menace to the peace of 
a community, so the pistol-toting nation is a menace to the peace 
of the world. — William Jennings Bryan. 


PRACTICE IN INFORMAL ARGUMENT 

Speak convincingly on these topics. Assertion without proof is 
worthless. 

1. While the teacher is out of the room, some crayon is thrown. 
The class shield the guilty pupils. Prove that the teacher is (or 
isn’t) justified in punishing the entire class. 

2. Thirty pupils left the building without permission to see a 
thrilling moving-picture scene photographed. Because of a 
teacher’s absence, twenty-five escaped detection. Should the 
five detected be punished? Convince the teacher or the five pupils. 

3. The teacher has asked the question, “What would you do if 
the conductor didn’t collect your fare?” James Strong has said, 
“I’d keep it. The cars are jammed and cold as an ice house. I 
sometimes have to wait twenty-five minutes for a car. Besides, 
if I gave the conductor my fare, he would probably pocket it. 
If he didn’t, an inspector might see me paying my fare and report 
the conductor for his mistake. Prove that James is right or wrong. 


ARGUMENT 


171 


4. President Foster of Reed College says, “As a rule, the schools 
do not make necessary the prompt and complete performance 
of duty. They do not cultivate the habit of ‘being there.’ The 
high-school diploma is no guarantee to the employer that the 
graduate has ever been required to do his' best at anything.” Do 
you agree with him? Present proof. 

5. Perhaps on a crowded street car you have seen a young man 
who neglected to offer his seat to a shabbily clad old woman sud¬ 
denly become most polite when a stylishly dressed girl entered. 
To whom should a person give up his street-car seat? Should 
a girl returning from a matinee expect a tired laborer to offer her 
his seat? Give your opinion on this problem, and try to convince 
the class of its worth by being logical and definite. 

6. When a tramp comes to your house and asks for his break¬ 
fast, what should you do — feed him, turn him away, or give him 
some good advice? Should alms giving be practiced exclusively 
by charity organizations? What specific reasons have you for 
your opinions? 

7. Many children believe that their best friend at Christmas 
time is Santa Claus. Do you think parents wise to teach their 
children to believe in Santa Claus? Why? 

8. Dr. J. W. Seaver found that non-smokers during their 
course in Yale University gained seventy-seven per cent more 
in lung capacity and twenty-four per cent more in height than 
smokers. Although nicotine has less effect on a man, many lead¬ 
ing statesmen and business men don’t smoke. Three successive 
presidents, Roosevelt, Taft, and Wilson, are examples. Advance 
further proof that boys should not smoke. 

9. The pupils of the school have decided to raise money for a 
victrola, dictaphone, or reflectoscope. Do you prefer to have the 
money raised by subscription or have a play put on to procure the 
necessary money? Why? 

10. Home financial conditions compel some pupils to leave 
high school after the first or second year. What subjects should 
the course of a boy or a girl who can spend only two years in high 
school include? Defend your answer. 

11. How should people who spit in public or litter parks with 
paper and rubbish be treated? Should a first offender be repri- 


172 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


manded, fined $5, $10, or $500, or imprisoned? Convince the class 
that your opinion is based on facts. 

12. What should a high school do with its loafers, who waste 
their opportunity and the taxpayers’ money? For example, would 
you favor debarring from the privileges of the school any pupil 
who through lack of work did not in two years complete the work 
of a year and a half? Prove that your answer is fair to the student 
and to the taxpayer. 

Persuasion. In argumentation we appeal entirely to 
man’s intellectual nature; we seek to inform his under¬ 
standing, and then allow him to act as he pleases. Per¬ 
suasion goes farther: it would not only convince the judg¬ 
ment, but change the will and rouse to action. 

Means of persuasion. Among the means employed to 
move the will and rouse to action are —- 

1. To lay before the mind a full and clear description of 
the object, circumstances, or scene. 

2. To narrate in a vivid manner the incident or story 
that is intended to induce the will to act. Such an explana¬ 
tion as enables one clearly to understand a case or situation 
may move him to sympathy. 

These forms may be called the pictorial methods of per¬ 
suasion. 

3. To present cogent reasons to convince the judgment 
and then to apply them to prove to the listener his advan¬ 
tage, or to move him by the higher motives of duty. Such 
arguments must be simple and direct. Every point must 
be fully illustrated. 

4. To state objections fairly and then answer them fully 
and convincingly. Omission or weakness here is fatal. 

5. To appeal directly to the feelings by dwelling on the 
points likely to arouse sympathy, or by infusing the hearer 
with the speaker’s own enthusiasm. 

In oral persuasion there is more than language; the 
speaker is present with his personal influence to weaken or 


ARGUMENT 173 

strengthen the effect of his words. The movements of the 
body, the expression of the countenance, the flash of the eye, 
the whole bearing, may be made to tell in favor of the 
speaker’s views. To rouse his audience, he must himself 
be deeply impressed with his subject. 

PRACTICE 

Persuade your class to act on one of these matters: 

1. The school will give a banner to the room with the lowest 
percentage of tardiness during next month.' Your room has had 
several people tardy frequently and a large number tardy occasion¬ 
ally. The teacher has asked you to present the importance of 
establishing the habit of punctuality and also of winning the 
banner. Talk to the class. 

2. Your class has been asked to contribute five dollars to the 
Red Cross. The teacher has asked you to take charge of the 
collection. Talk to the class. 

3. You are the representative of the General Organization or 
Athletic Association. The term dues are twenty-five cents, and 
every room is expected to have one hundred per cent membership. 
Ten pupils in the room haven’t paid their dues. In a speech 
persuade these ten to pay the twenty-five cents for the athletic 
or other activities of the school. 

4. It has been proposed that an hour be added to the school 
day. Persuade jmur class to send a letter of protest to the principal 
or board of education. 

5. It has been proposed that the school year be lengthened to 
forty-eight weeks. Persuade your class to protest against the 
change. 

6. Some Americans don’t know The Star-spangled Banner and 
America. Others don’t understand the proper treatment of the 
flag and respect due to the flag and to our national anthem. 
Probably there are some such in your class. Rouse the class to 
some enthusiasm about the matter. Include some clear and 
definite explanation. 

7. The school yard or streets have been used somewhat as 


174 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


wastebaskets. Probably some of the careless pupils arc in your 
class. Can you persuade them not to litter the yard and streets 
with paper? 

Debate 

The question. For a debate choose an interesting, 
worth-while, two-sided question and state it clearly, briefly, 
and definitely. Avoid a broad or complicated question, a 
proposition which can never be proved or disproved, and 
a proposition which has not in it. 

EXERCISE 

Criticize these questions for debate: 

1. The trolley is more useful than the automobile. 2. Cigarette 
smoking is injurious to boys. 3. The pen is mightier than the 
sword. 4. Grant was a greater general than Napoleon. 5. Moral 
requirements for high-school graduation should be as high as 
scholarship requirements. 6. The United States should not belong 
to the League of Nations. 7. Law is a better profession than 
medicine. 

Finding material. Webster said, “ I first examine my 
own mind searchingly to find out what I know about the 
subject, and then I read to learn what I don’t know about 
it.” The Readers’ Guide, which is a continuation of Poole’s 
Index from the year 1900, is an index of the articles in all 
magazines. The Congressional Record, Census Reports, 
American Library Annual, New International Year Book, 
Encyclopedia Britannica, New International Encyclopedia, 
Statesman’s Year Book, Tribune Almanac, Eagle Almanac, 
World Almanac, Who’s Who, Who’s Who in America, and 
Bliss’s New Encyclopedia of Social Reform contain informa¬ 
tion valuable in debate. Perhaps your librarian will prepare 
a bibliography on the subject. On a local question ask the 
people who know the facts; on a school question interview 
the principal, superintendent, teachers, pupils, and parents. 


ARGUMENT 


175 


Main issues. The main issues map out the work that a 
debater must do to win. They are the divisions of the 
proposition, the points which must be proved to prove the 
case, the points on which there is a clash of opinion. 

On the question, One period each week of military training 
should be required of every physically fit high-school boy, the 
affirmative will maintain — 

1. That military training develops the body; 

2. That military training develops mental alertness, concen¬ 
tration, accuracy, and prompt obedience useful in any occupation; 
and 

3. That the state and the United States in an emergenc}^ 
need such trained citizens. 

The negative will maintain — ; 

1. That physical training is better bodily training than military 
instruction; 

2. That the alertness, concentration, and prompt obedience 
learned in military training are not transferred to other pursuits; 

3. That high-school military training is not so valuable for the 
future citizen soldier as physical training; and 

4. That military training for all high-school boys will make 
our country militaristic. 

Opinions clash on the value of military training to the 
individual and its value to the state and United States. 
The main issues therefore are — 

1. A period each week of military training is more valuable 
to the boy than an extra period of physical training or some other 
school activity would be. 

2. The welfare of the state and United States demands that 
high-school boys receive military instruction. 

If the affirmative prove conclusively either of these main 
issues, the judges may give them the decision. If they 
prove both issues, the judges must vote for the affirmative, 


176 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 

for they have accomplished the full task imposed by the 
question. 

Don’t select too many issues. Usually, two, three, or 
four are better than six or eight. Combine minor issues. 
Also be sure that the main issues cover the ground — prove 
the case. In a debate on military training one team used 
these issues: 

1. Military training improves the morals of pupils. 

2. Military training teaches quick thinking and prompt 
obedience. 

3. Military training is excellent physical training. 

These issues do not cover the ground because the obligations 
of the individual to his government are disregarded. 

Finally, avoid overlapping issues. One debater decided 
on these issues: 

1. Military training is more beneficial to the pupil than most 
other school exercises. 

2. Military training fits the pupil for fulfilling his obligations 
to his state and country. 

3. Military training will prepare a pupil for success in any 
business or profession. 

These are overlapping issues because the third is just one 
part or phase of the first issue. 


Three Main Issues 







ARGUMENT 


177 


Three Issues That Do Not Cover the Ground 


1 

2 

/ 

3 



* 

• 


Three Issues that Overlap 

Instead of covering the field, these issues cover parts of the field 
twice. 1 and 2 cover the ground (the rectangle in the diagram); 
3 covers a part of 1. 


r 




2 



o 

o 


EXERCISE 

Criticize the sets of issues on the questions: Suffrage in this 
state should be restricted by an educational test, and The United States 
government should censor moving-picture films. 

1 

(1) Is there any need for the restriction of suffrage by an edu¬ 
cational test? 

(2) Do politicians influence the voting of uneducated people? 

















178 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


2 

(1) Would an educational test improve elections? 

(2) Would an educational test put an end to grafting and 
selling votes? 

3 

(1) Is the educational test of sufficient value to warrant its 
use in this state? 

(2) Is the test useful to the state? 

(3) Is the test useful to the citizen? 

4 

(1) Would the educational test improve the government? 

(2) Would the educational test improve the voter? 


5 

(1) Should the uneducated be refused the right to vote? 

(2) Would an educational test be of use in deciding who shall 
vote? 

6 

(1) Are films at present unsatisfactory? 

(2) Is the present method of censorship satisfactory? 

(3) Would the censorship of films infringe upon the rights of 
individuals in the industry? 

i 

(1) Will national censorship lessen juvenile crime and 
delinquency? 

(2) Will national censorship produce better citizens? 

(3) Will national censorship raise the public standard of 
morality? 


How to Construct a Brief 

1. The introduction should include the history of the 
question (origin, immediate cause for discussion, and 
importance), definition of terms (if definition is necessary), 
admitted facts (if there are any), and points at issue ex- 


ARGUMENT 


179 


pressed in declarative or interrogative sentences. The 
introduction may have also a restatement of the question 
as defined, an exclusion of irrelevant matter, and the con¬ 
tentions of the affirmative and negative. As every state¬ 
ment requiring proof is excluded, the introduction is the 
same for the affirmative and the negative. 

2. Don’t connect the topics of the introduction by for. 

3. In the brief proper each subtopic is proof of the main 
topic and is connected with it by for. Use a comma before 
for and no punctuation after. 

4. Begin the brief proper with a statement of what you 
wish to prove. Use as main topics the main issues. 

5. Use complete sentences. In the brief proper avoid 
the compound sentence. 

6. Use the Harvard system of numbering and uniform 
indention. 

7. Make the conclusion a one-sentence summary of points 
proved. 

8. Use the words introduction , brief proper , conclusion , 
and refutation, but don’t number them. 

9. In the brief proper distinguish facts or proof from 
assertion by starring definite, convincing proof. 

10. Give in parentheses the sources of the facts or proof. 

Should the national government censor moving-picture 
filmst 

Brief for the Affirmative 
Introduction 

I. The moving-picture industry, which ranks fourth among the 
industries of the United States, influences more people than 
our schools, our churches, and our ethical institutions 
combined. 

11. The history of film censorship covers sixteen years. 

A. Chicago introduced film censorship in 1907; San Fran¬ 
cisco, in 1908; New York City, in 1909. 



180 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


B. Films at present are censored by the National Board of 
Review, six state boards, and several city boards. 

III. By censorship is meant the establishment of certain specific 

regulations for the elimination of harmful pictures or scenes 
of pictures. The word national suggests that the enforcement 
of the regulations be the duty of a federal board of censors. 

IV. The question of the constitutionality of such a law is irrelevant 

because any legal difficulty could be overcome by an amend¬ 
ment to the Constitution. 

V. The points at issue are: 

A. Is the present volunteer, city, and state censorship adequate? 

B. Will federal censorship improve unsatisfactory conditions? 

C. Will federal censorship interfere with the rights of manu¬ 

facturers and exhibitors of films? 


Brief Proper 

The national government should censor moving-picture films, for 

I. The present volunteer, city, and state censorship is inadequate, 
for 

A. The organization, financing, and powers of the National 

Board of Review make it an unsatisfactory body for film 
censorship, for 

1. * The members are a self-appointed group of New York 

citizens.. ( Survey , April, 1920.) 

2. * More than ninety-six per cent of their expenses are 

paid by the manufacturers. (Report of National 
Board, 1916-1917.) 

3. Many board members have no part in the censorship, for 
a. * Dr. Cadman, Dr. MacFarland, and Reverend C. B. 

Ackley said that they were never asked to review 
pictures. (Brooklyn Eagle , February 20, 1921.) 

4. * The board, without legal power, merely recommends. 

(Survey, August 7, 1915.) 

5. * The board is not responsible for posters, handbills, or 

other advertising of motion pictures. (Pamphlet issued 
by the National Board of Review, February, 1915.) 

B. The National Board of Review fails to eliminate objection¬ 

able films or parts of films, for 


ARGUMENT 181 

1. The state boards find that harmful pictures are approved 

by the National Board of Review, for 

a. *4rom 178 films examined, the National Board made 

41 ehminations; the Pennsylvania board, 1,108. 
C Survey , April 17, 1920.) 

b. * During the same period the Pennsylvania state board 

condemned forty-one films from which the National 
Board of Review made only two minor elimina¬ 
tions. ( Churchman , January 24, 1920.) 

2. Few performances are free from objectionable scenes, for 

a. * Many comedies, for example, the Sennett comedies, 

are a combination of cheap rowdyism and vulgar 
display of emotion. 

b. Many serious plays have a bad influence, for 

(1) * Western plays are not true to life in their gun 

play and dance-hall scenes. 

(2) Murder and robbery scenes lead to crime, for 

(a) * Governor Miller, when he signed the Lusk- 

Clayton Motion Picture Law, said that 
the moving picture had become a menace 
to the youth. ( Literary Digest, May 14, 
1921.) ' 

( b ) * Many boys in reformatories have confessed 

that they received their criminal ideas 
from screen dramas. (J. Rowland Shel¬ 
don of Big Brothers.) 

(c) *A New York City deputy police commis¬ 

sioner stated that the greater part of 
juvenile delinquency is due to the motion 
picture. ( Literary Digest, May 14, 1921.) 
id) * In December, 1920, to reduce crime, the 
chief of police of Chicago forbade the 
exhibition of any picture that showed a 
crime committed. 

(e) * Herbert C. Parsons found that of sixty-one 
probation officers fifty-six believed that 
the movies are responsible for crime. 

(/) * Eminent psychologists say that, even though 
the picture may show the criminal pun¬ 
ished, the boy’s mind is impressed with 
the criminal act, while the moral goes 


182 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


unheeded. (Dr. A. T. Poffenberger, 
Scientific Monthly , April, 1921; William 
A. McKeever, Good Housekeeping.) 

(3) *Sex plays, sensational plays, underworld plays, 
vulgar plays, and profane plays are common — 
What a Young Girl Learned from Life , Sex, 
The Passion Flower, Dangerous Lovers, The 
Brand, Tyrant Fear, Passion, The Penalty, 
The Devil 1 s Pass-Key, Would You Forgivef 

3. The producers acknowledge that harmful pictures are 

screened, for 

a. * Five companies in a statement to a commission on 
education of the United States House of Repre¬ 
sentatives said, “The production of vicious plays is 
increasing, and this cancer must be cut out.” 

4. Friends of the movies admit that many objectionable 

films are shown, for 

a. * Sir Colbert Parker in a defense of the motion picture 
admits that seventy-five per cent of the films are 
bad. ( Bookman, November, 1921.) 

C. City and state censorship is not solving the problem, for 

1. * Pennsylvania, New York, Kansas, Ohio, Virginia, and 

Maryland are the only states that censor films. . 

2. * Only a few cities, notably Portland, San Francisco, 

Chicago, and Detroit, have active censorship boards. 

3. * Two million people saw Passion, a picture rejected by 

four state censorship boards. ( Literary Digest, 
August 6, 1921.) 

(Proof of the second and third issues is omitted.) 

Conclusion 

Since the present volunteer, city, and state censorship is inade¬ 
quate, since federal censorship would improve unsatisfactory con¬ 
ditions, and since federal censorship would not interfere with the 
rights of manufacturers and exhibitors of films, therefore the national 
government should censor moving-picture films. 







ARGUMENT 


183 


EXERCISE 

Criticize these arguments. Note that for doesn't always introduce 
proof. What would be proof of each assertion? 

1. Many voters are bribed, for many voters have no money. 
2. The educational test for suffrage will reduce the number of 
illiterates in the state, for the state has a high percentage of immi¬ 
grants. 3. He went to bed at nine o’clock, for he was tired. 
4. Many voters cannot read and write, for many citizens never 
learn to read and write. 5. A large number of voters don’t know 
what they are voting for, for they don’t always elect the best 
candidate. 


PRACTICE 

Write briefs on a number of the questions at the end of the 
chapter. Use first a school question, and write the introduction, 
the proof of one issue, and the conclusion. 

Introduction. In the debate the introduction should 
clear the way for the argument. The history of the question 
will vary with the question; it may be long or short or 
may be unnecessary if the audience know the origin of 
the question, its importance, and its relation to them. II 
any word or expression is not clear to the audience or 
might be interpreted in two ways, define it. Supplement 
the dictionary definition by a common-sense analysis ol 
the expression, an appeal to authorities who have defined 
it, or a study of the history of the question. Exclude 
irrelevant matter. If points are by agreement omitted 
from the discussion, state these. I inally state the main 
issues. But it isn’t enough to state the issues. Your oppo¬ 
nent may in a few minutes show that your issues aren t 
the main issues. The most important part of the intro¬ 
duction therefore is such an analysis of the question as 
will make clear to the audience that you have selected the 
issues that must be proved to prove the case and that if 
you prove the issues the decision must be in your favor. 


184 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


The introduction should also win the sympathy of the 
audience. Hence the introduction should be simple, 
straightforward, modest, and fair. Explain. Do not argue, 
overstate, or make statements that need proof. 


EXERCISE 

Criticize these statements in introductions: 

1. The people as a whole find little to complain of in the movies, 
but a few agitators have raised the question of censorship. 2. The 
moving picture is admittedly the chief cause - of juvenile delin¬ 
quency. 3. Moving pictures have degenerated so rapidly that 
they are now a menace to public morality. 4. A group of self- 
appointed moralists wish to deprive the plain people of their 
rights. 

Should the national government censor moving-picture 
films? 

Introduction 

The motion-picture industry began about twenty years ago as 
a penny-in-the-slot affair. Now sixty-eight thousand miles of films 
are produced annually in the United States at a cost of $37,000,000 
for the films alone. Twenty thousand theaters exhibit these films. 
The movie ranks fourth among the industries of this country. The 
United States, a pioneer in the industry, at present produces nine- 
tenths of the films shown throughout the world. American films 
are exhibited in every civilized country and in a number of barbarous 
lands. 

F. B. Stevenson of the Brooklyn Eagle has weli called the moving 
picture “the most powerful medium of expression and impression 
yet invented.” Charles A. McMahon, director of the Motion Picture 
Bureau of the Roman Catholic Welfare Council, said recently, “The 
gigantic business of movies is daily influencing more people than our 
schools, our churches, and our ethical organizations combined. One 
person in every five in the United States or one-fifth of our 110,000,- 
000 population attends moving-picture theaters every day. This is 
a startling fact, for it means that over 20,000,000 persons are being 
regularly and continually influenced for good or evil. And about 
20 % to 25 % are children under sixteen years of age.” Naturally an 





ARGUMENT 


185 


industry which has such a free field and which influences so many 
people is subjected to much discussion and criticism. 

Chicago, the pioneer in moving-picture censorship, began censor¬ 
ing films in November, 1907; San Francisco, in 1908. In New York 
City the Public Service Institute took ov£r the work of previewing 
films in March, 1909, at the request of the exhibitors, who wished 
to silence public criticism. In June of the same year at the request 
of the manufacturers the work was made nation-wide, and the 
National Board of Review was organized. This voluntary board, 
six state boards, and several city boards constitute the sole check 
we have on the activities of an industry which influences 20,000,000 
people daily. We of the affirmative maintain that the system of 
editorship or censorship which is so successful in six states should 
be nationalized by the authorization of a federal board which will 
view every picture destined for exhibition and reject, in whole or 
in part, any picture deemed unfit for public presentation. 

The Board of Review of Pennsylvania, which censors from twelve 
million to twenty million feet of film annually, has defined satisfac¬ 
torily the word censor. This Board of Review, which has been serv¬ 
ing as a model for the rest of the country, prohibits what is “ sacri¬ 
legious, obscene, indecent, or immoral,” and “may tend to debase or 
corrupt morals.” Some of the heads under which the board has 
classified its objections are: indecorous, ambiguous, and irreverent 
titles and subtitles; cruelty to animals; the irreverent treatment of 
sacred subjects; drunken scenes carried to excess; cruelty to young 
infants, and excessive cruelty and torture to adults, especially to 
women; .the exhibition of profuse bleeding; nude figures; offensive 
vulgarity and impropriety in conduct and dress; indecorous dancing; 
excessively passionate love scenes; gruesome murders and strangula¬ 
tion scenes; executions; the effects of vitriol throwing; the drug 
habit; and materialization of the conventional figure of Christ. The 
New York state censors eliminate a film or part of a film which is 
“obscene, indecent, immoral, inhuman, sacrilegious, or of such a 
character that its exhibition would lead to corrupt morals or incite 
to crime.” 

A discussion of the constitutionality of such a law is irrelevant 
because, if the United States Supreme Court should declare the law 
unconstitutional, censorship could be established by an amendment 
to the Constitution. The question, Should the United States govern¬ 
ment censor moving pictures? calls for a discussion of the wisdom or 
advisability of such censorship, not of the legal method of establish¬ 
ing it. 


180 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


In the discussion of the question we shall first survey the moving- 
picture business under state, city, and volunteer censorship and 
shall prove that present conditions are unsatisfactory — that many 
objectionable films are exhibited. We shall then consider the efficacy 
of the remedy advocated, and finally discuss the contention that 
federal censorship would be an unwarranted interference with the 
rights of the moving-picture producers. These are the points upon 
which a decision of the matter must rest: present conditions, the 
efficacy of the remedy proposed, and the justice of the remedy. The 
main issues therefore are: (1) Is the present volunteer, state, and 
city censorship adequate? (2) Will federal censorship improve 
unsatisfactory conditions? (3) Will federal censorship interfere with 
the rights of the manufacturers and exhibitors of films? 

PRACTICE 

Write or speak the introductions of the arguments briefed. 

Body of argument. The body of an argument should be 
a logical and emphatic grouping of facts, authoritative 
opinion, and reasoning to prove the main issues. Don’t 
advance weak arguments. Hit hard. One good reason 
is more convincing than several poor ones. 

Clearness. The English of debate should be clear as 
crystal. The audience have no opportunity to return to 
a statement to search out its meaning. Debaters are prone 
to forget that matters simple to them after weeks of study 
on a question may seem complicated or abstruse to the 
audience, who have never given the question a serious 
thought. 

Accuracy. The debater must say exactly what he means. 
Exaggeration and inaccuracy destroy the confidence of 
the audience. 


Four Paragraphs of Argument 

Young people are influenced by what they see as well as by what 
they hear and read. At the hearing of a censorship bill before the 
Massachusetts Legislature, a report was submitted by the National 
Board of Review that probation officers throughout the country had 


ARGUMENT 


187 


rendered a verdict that “motion pictures are not directly responsible 
to any appreciable degree, if at all, for juvenile delinquency.” In 
order to verify this report, Herbert C. Parsons, deputy commissioner 
of probation of Massachusetts, sent letters to 155 probation officers. 
The answers which he received disclosed th$ fact that only six officials 
had been asked their opinions by the National Board of Review. 
Three of these sent their opinions, and the answers of two were that 
pictures displayed without restrictions are a menace. Mr. Parsons 
did not ask the probation officers what their opinions were concerning 
censorship but merely wanted to verify the contention of the National 
Board of Review. Fifty-six men, however, voluntarily stated that 
they were in favor of rigid censorship, while five were against it. 

In December, 1920, Chief of Police Fitzmorris of Chicago gave 
orders forbidding the exhibition of any screen drama that showed 
a crime committed, even though the end might show the criminal 
in a prison cell. “It will make no difference whether the criminal 
shown is a hero or a villain,” said the chief. The order was issued 
after three youthful robbers, who were sentenced to the State Reform¬ 
atory at Pontiac, said their crimes had been inspired by a “crook” 
moving picture. 

At one time it was said that pictures dealing with crime, if they 
pointed a moral, were not to be condemned, but this idea no longer 
holds. Professor William A. McKeever, of Kansas State Agricultural 
College, an eminent psychologist, and Rowland C. Sheldon, general 
secretary of the Big Brother Movement, an eminent social worker, 
writing respectively in Good Housekeeping and the Bookman say 
substantially the same thing; namely, that “after seeing a crime 
portrayed on the screen, the child’s camera-eye does not register the 
unexciting scenes of the culprit in the prison cell. Hence the movies 
are an excellent primary school for criminals.” And, as Professor 
McKeever points out, adults as well as children are thus incited, 
though to a less degree; those adults of low mental development, 
from whom our criminals are largely recruited, are particularly 
affected. 

In the current Scientific Monthly Professor A. T. Poffenberger, of 
Columbia University, says, “Children, and older persons of retarded 
mental development, are unable to resist the suggestions of posters 
and lurid advertisements. Motion pictures may by an ending which 
shows the criminal brought to justice carry a moral to the intelligent 
adult, but that which impresses the mind of the mentally young and 
colors their imagination is the excitement and bravado accompanying 
the criminal act, while the moral is unheeded. Their minds cannot 


188 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


logically reach the conclusion to which the chain of circumstances 
will drive the normal adult.” 


PRACTICE 

Write or speak the arguments briefed. 

Conclusion. The conclusion of the debate should be a 
clear, brief, easy, forceful restatement of the main issues 
and proofs. It should be neither a bare summary nor a 
spread-eagle peroration, but a dignified, convincing restate¬ 
ment and enforcement of the chief arguments. 

Delivery. A speech in a school debate should be extem¬ 
poraneous. You may think at first that you can speak 
more smoothly and convincingly if you memorize your 
speech. But the audience will know that you are reciting, 
not debating; and your speech will not be so convincing 
as that of a less polished debater who thinks on his feet. 

Debate custom. Address the presiding officer as “ Mister 
Chairman ” or “ Madam Chairman.” Do not separately 
address the judges or other groups in the audience. Do 
not refer to opponents or colleagues by name. Say “ the 
first speaker on the affirmative,” “ my colleague,” “ the 
preceding speaker," or “ the second speaker on the nega¬ 
tive.” In direct proof the order of speakers is first affirma¬ 
tive, first negative, second affirmative, etc. In rebuttal 
the negative usually speaks first. This plan gives the affirm¬ 
ative the advantage of the last speech — a fair arrange¬ 
ment because the burden of proof rests upon the affirmative. 
In other words, if neither side advances definite proof or 
if the negative speakers overthrow the arguments of the 
affirmative without presenting any of their own, the affirma¬ 
tive have lost the debate because they have failed to prove 
the proposition. Sometimes before the rebuttal there is 
an intermission of two to live minutes for conference. A 
warning bell one or two minutes before a speaker’s time is 
up helps him to close before the final gavel. If he is speak- 


ARGUMENT 189 

ing when the final gavel falls, he should conclude the 
sentence quickly and briefly and take his seat. 

First speaker negative. The first speaker on the 
negative side must be prepared to supply any important 
introductory material omitted by the first speaker affirma¬ 
tive but should not repeat facts already presented. He 
may either accept the definition of terms and issues or 
substitute his own and prove to the audience that the 
affirmative definition is not fair and that their issues are 
not the main points to be proved. 

Asking questions. If you insist that your opponents 
answer a fair question, you may enforce your point and 
drive them upon the horns of a dilemma. Lincoln lost 
the senatorship from Illinois and won the presidency by 
asking Douglas the question: “ Can the people of a terri¬ 
tory in any lawful way exclude slavery from its limits prior 
to the formation of a state constitution?’ 7 A dozen ques¬ 
tions, however, will make the audience think that your 
arguments are interrogation points rather than facts. 

Rebuttal method and matter. To be ready for rebuttal, 
prepare rebuttal cards with facts, statistics, statements of 
authorities or experts, illustrations, analogies, instances, 
principles, or reasoning for the attack of every important 
argument your opponents are likely to advance. During 
the debate take a few notes. Many a debater makes the 
mistake of spending his entire time in taking notes instead 
of using most of it for listening, finding the prepared rebuttal 
cards, and thinking what arguments are worth answering 
and how he will meet them. 

In preparing to refute an argument, ask these two ques¬ 
tions: How do you knowf and What of itf Perhaps you can 
deny your opponents facts or statistics or present other 
facts and figures that put the matter in a different light. 
Perhaps you can point out that his authorities and experts 
are prejudiced or unreliable, his reasoning faulty, his state- 


190 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


merits inconsistent, or his principles, maxims, or proverbs 
unsound. An example, analogy, or humorous absurdity 
may enforce your point. One foolish statement is usually 
enough to lose a debate. Possibly you can refute his 
authority with a better authority or produce from one of 
his authorities a quotation which indicates that the author¬ 
ity’s attitude was not fairly presented. Or you may admit 
what he has said and show that his proofs are inadequate, 
are beside the point, or really strengthen your case. The 
last type of refutation is called turning the tables. 

Place of refutation. If a prejudice has been aroused 
against your side or if some argument blocks your progress, 
clear the way before presenting your direct case. Such 
rebuttal should be brief and striking. Otherwise refutation 
should be placed at the end of the direct speech if it is con¬ 
clusive, and in the middle if it is not so strong. In the 
rebuttal speech attack first the strongest argument you 
can overthrow. 

Rebuttal mistakes. A few common mistakes should 
be guarded against. Don’t misrepresent your opponent’s 
argument. If possible, use his exact words in stating the 
argument to be refuted. Don’t begin the refutation of 
each point with some unvarying formula like “ My opponent 
says—.” Don’t advance constructive arguments in the 
rebuttal. Avoid “ scrappy rebuttal” by striking at your 
opponents’ main issues. When you chop down a tree, 
the branches go with it. So when the main arguments fall, 
the little ones go down with them. Don’t spend your 
refutation time clipping off tiny branches; chop away at 
the trunk. 

Refutation of Argument 
Brief 

I. Although it is said that national censorship would be un- 
American, undemocratic, and tyrannical, yet this argument is 
not sound, for 


ARGUMENT 


191 


A. It is no more un-American to have a small group of 

censors decide what pictures the public shall see than 
for the producers and National Board of Review to do 
the choosing. 

B. The national and state governments already protect us 

with pure food laws, laws against sending indecency 
through the mails, drug laws, and health boards, 
which we do not consider undemocratic or tyrannical. 

Speech 

Somebody must decide what pictures are to be exhibited. William 
Sheafe Chase well says, “It is no more un-American to have a small 
group of censors decide what pictures the people shall see than it is 
to have a small group of producers do the choosing.” And censorship 
by a self-appointed board, who are paid by the moving-picture pro¬ 
ducers and naturally censor in their interest, is no more democratic 
than censorship by the representatives of the public, who have the 
welfare of the people at heart. We don’t consider the federal pure 
food laws and laws preventing the sale of opium and other habit¬ 
forming drugs tyrannical. Who calls tyrannical the law which makes 
it a crime to send indecency through the mails? Then why call 
tyrannical another law to prevent the poisoning of the minds of our 
people? Clinton Rogers Woodruff says in a bulletin of the Society 
hr the Prevention of Crime, “To subject the general community 
(and every man and his family go to the movies) to the suggestive¬ 
ness and indelicacies of the average motion picture is equivalent to 
subjecting them to an infection of a plague. We have a Board of 
Health to protect our communities from physical pestilence; let us 
have a Board of Moving-Picture Censors to protect us from moral 
pestilence.” 


PRACTICE 

1 . Refute a point in the brief in this chapter. 

2. Assume that some proof has been advanced by the negative 
on each of these fourteen points. Refute number one and six others. 

1. Moving pictures do not incite to criminality, for Wilson, 
Hughes, and Lloyd George enjoy detective stories without emulat¬ 
ing the criminals. 2. Art cannot flourish under restrictions. 

3. Masterpieces would be rejected by the censors. 4. The federal 


192 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


censors would be grafters. 5. As the stage, the book, the magazine, 
and the newspaper are unregulated, the censorship of the moving 
picture is an unjust discrimination. 6. National censorship is 
a waste of the taxpayers’ money because present laws are adequate. 
7. No board can satisfactorily censor all pictures. 8. State censors 
have erred in their judgment of pictures. 9. Any congressional 
enactment involving the censorship of moving pictures would be 
unconstitutional. 10. The best censors of the movies are the 
general public. 11. Censorship is unnecessary, for the producers 
will eliminate objectionable films. 12. It is better to leave the 
censoring of films to the states and cities. 13. Federal censorship 
of films is a curtailment of liberty — is similar to a deprivation of 
the right of free speech. 14. National censorship would strangle 
the moving-picture industry. 


How to Debate 

1. With your colleagues decide upon the issues and a 
division of points to be proved. 

2. Study both sides of the question. 

3. Set down every argument that your opponents might 
use. Classify your rebuttal material under these heads. 
Use library cards. 

4. Don’t overrate or underrate your opponents. Give them 
credit for as much sense and cleverness as you possess, and 
decide to win by wide reading, logical planning, and con¬ 
vincing delivery. The inspiration of the moment usually 
comes to the best-prepared speaker. 

5. Explain clearly at the beginning of a debate. A case 
well explained is half won. 

6. In the introduction convince the audience that the 
issues your side has selected are the fundamental considera¬ 
tions upon which a decision of the question rests. 

7. Repeat the issues during the debate and summarize at 
the end so clearly that every one in the audience must under¬ 
stand and remember upon what points you base your case. 


ARGUMENT 193 

8. When you pass from one topic to another, make the 
transition clear to the audience. 

9. Arrange your arguments so that the weakest come in 
the middle and the strongest last. 

10. Don’t weary the audience with sets of statistics which 
mean little or nothing to them. Make facts take hold by 
applying or illustrating them. 

11. Remember that assertion is not proof. 

12. Don’t be smart or discourteous. 

13. Debate is a method of arriving at the truth, not oj 
tricking your opponents and deceiving the judges. Play 
fair. Don’t exaggerate. Admit that there is truth on 
your opponents’ side. 

14. Don’t memorize your speech. Be ready to change 
your attack if your opponents present an entirely unex¬ 
pected case. 

15. Speak clearly and forcefully. Don’t rant or declaim. 

School Questions for Debate 

1. Every high-school boy should have a course in the elements 
of carpentry, plumbing, and electric wiring. 

2. Every high-school girl should be required to take cooking. 

3. Pupils should receive school credit for music taken outside 
of school. 

4. Pupils should receive school credit for participation in athletics. 

5. Interscholastic athletic contests should be abolished. 

6. Pupils should receive school credit for gardening, sweeping, 
washing dishes, tending the furnace, delivering papers, clerking after 
school, and other work done outside of school hours. 

7. The Board of Education should furnish (or discontinue 
furnishing) textbooks for high-school pupils. 

8. An hour should be added to the school day. 

9. Ability to swim twenty-five yards should be a requirement for 
high-school graduation. 

10. High-school fraternities should be abolished (or permitted). 

11. A month should be added to the school year. 

12. School should be in session five and a half days a week. 

13. No girl should be required to study algebra. 



194 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 

14. The state should pay the college tuition of all high-school 
graduates. 

15. The honor system in examinations should be introduced into 
our school. 

16. A system of student self-government should be established in 
our school. 

17. A pupil should be detained at least a half-hour after school 
for unexcused tardiness, or Detention for lateness should be abolished. 

18. At least one year of Latin should be required of every pupil 
in the general course. 

19. Pupils who attain a class average of eighty per cent should 
be exempt from all examinations. 

20. A pupil, except in case of sickness, should be compelled by 
law to attend school every day. 

21. High-school examinations should be abolished (or reestab¬ 
lished). 

22. High-school football should be abolished. 

23. High-school pupils should be charged a tuition fee of five 
dollars a year. 

24. In the study of fiction high-school pupils should spend the 
most time on living and recent writers. 

25. The English course should include the reading and study of 
the best magazines. 

26. Members of athletic teams should be required to maintain an 
average of seventy-five per cent in at least fifteen periods of prepared 
work. 

27. In the larger cities separate high schools should be provided 
for boys and girls. 

City, State, and United States Questions 

1. Suffrage in the United States should be restricted by an 
educational test. 

2. A citizen of the United States who neglects to vote should 
be fined or imprisoned. 

3. The United States government should own and operate the 
railroads. 

4. A president should serve but one six-year term. 

5. The city should own and operate all street railways. 

6. The city should own and operate its electric-light plant. 

7. Oath-bound secret societies are detrimental to the welfare 
of the United States. 


ARGUMENT 


195 

8. The Labor Board should be given full power to enforce its 
decisions as to wages and working conditions. 

9. Compulsory arbitration boards should be established by the 
United States to settle all disputes between employers and wage- 
earners. 

10. The United States should within two years grant Philippine 
independence. 

11. Capital punishment should be abolished in this state. 

12. A minimum wage for women workers should be established 
by the United States government. 

13. Our city should adopt the commission form of government. 

14. The state government should establish a system of old-age 
pensions. 

15. If a man’s estate exceeds one million dollars, the excess should 
belong to the state. 

18. Ihe government should pension indigent mothers of children 
under sixteen years of age. 

U. Ihe United States should abandon the Monroe Doctrine. 

18. In this state a unanimous verdict should no longer be required 
in jury trials. 

19. In labor disputes the boycott is justifiable. 

20. The literacy test for immigrants who wish to enter the country 
should be abolished. 

21. The United States government should take steps to effect 
the gradual elimination of foreign-language newspapers. 

22. Billboard advertising should be prohibited. 

23. The closed shop should be prohibited by law. 

24. The presidential candidates should be nominated directly by 
the people voting at a primary election. 

25. The president should be elected by direct vote of the people. 

26. The Senate should be abolished. 

27. Asiatics should be admitted to United States citizenship. 

28. The Constitution should be further amended to prevent the 
raising, preparation, and sale of tobacco. 

29. Direct primaries should be abolished (or established) in this 
state. 

30. State law should provide for the recall of municipal and state 
officials. 

31. The initiative and referendum should be instituted (or abol¬ 
ished) in this state. 

32. The state should institute more rigid tests for candidates for 
the license to drive an automobile. 








196 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


33. Sunday professional baseball should be prohibited. 

34. Our present policy of excluding the Chinese from this country 
is unjustifiable. 

35. The country boy or girl has a better chance to succeed than 
the city boy or girl. 

36. The United States should exempt its coastwise shipping from 
Panama Canal tolls. 

37. A national system of public labor exchanges should be estab¬ 
lished. 

38. In times of industrial depression municipalities should give 
work to the unemployed. 

39. State or federal pensions or allowances should be granted to 
the unemployed. 

40. The motion-picture houses of this city (or town) should be 
open (or closed) on Sunday. 

41. The United States should adopt the daylight saving plan as 
a permanent arrangement. 


CHAPTER XI 
PUBLICATION 

Newspaper 

The best and most enjoyable way to learn to write is 
by writing for publication. 

News. News is an account of events of all kinds from 
all parts of the world. Dana of the New York Sun once 
said, “ When a dog bites a man, that is not news; but 
when a man bites a dog, that is news.” No reporter 
notices a thousand well-behaved Fords jogging along on 
the bank of a river; but, when one crashes into a Hudson 
and both cars go down over an embankment into the 
river, the cars, the people, the bank, and the river have 
been raised from the everyday to the unusual. The 
reporter who knows news when he hears it and can get 
the piece of news he goes after and perhaps pick up an 
item he didn’t expect is said to have “ a nose for news.” 

Contents. A typical newspaper has news columns, 
advertisements, departments, special features, and an 
editorial page, on* which may be printed letters from 
readers. Departments found in many papers are sports, 
finance, society, art, music, drama, moving pictures, 
shipping, schools, literature, crops, police and fire, army 
and navy, real estate, business, markets. Special features 
in some newspapers are cartoons, a humor column, poetry, 
short stories, chapters of a novel or other book, illustra¬ 
tions, and signed articles by specialists or popular writers. 

Make-up. No one reads a newspaper from first page 
to last, as he reads a novel. Perhaps the reader scans the 

197 





198 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


domestic and foreign news on the front page, then turns 
to the last page for Dr. Crane’s editorial and Keeping up 
with the Joneses , and studies next the football situation as 
outlined on the sporting page. Hence the newspaper must 
be so arranged that each reader can find what he looks 
for. Because the last column of the first page attracts 
the eye when the paper lies on the news stand and because 
this column continues naturally to the second page, the 
most important item occupies this place. The editor 
makes up first the editorial page, then fits the advertise¬ 
ments into the space contracted for, puts commonly on 
pages 2 and 3 less important local and foreign news, 
arranges the other departments and special articles, and 
last of all fills the front page with the latest and most 
important news. Newspapers vary in arrangement. On 
the last page, which is next in value to the front page, 
one newspaper has a humorous article, two cartoons, an 
editorial, a humorous poem, and an advertisement; an¬ 
other, humorous and human-interest stories and display 
advertisements; a third, attractive write-ups and display 
and classified advertisements. Some newspapers print an 
index to guide the reader to the departments in which he 
is interested. 


EXERCISE 

Compare two or more newspapers as to contents and make-up. 
How much local, general, and foreign news is there in each? How 
is this news arranged? Which paper seems more accurate? What 
news is emphasized in each? Which gives most space to divorces, 
murders, and other crimes, scandals, and sensations? What 
departments and special features has each? Which of these are 
conspicuously placed or given much space? 

News item and news story. The news item is a clear, 
accurate, terse statement of fact. The news story may 
be a feature story, in which some incident or detail is 







PUBLICATION 


199 


emphasized, or a human-interest story, which plays on 
the emotions with a humorous or pathetic account of ani¬ 
mals, children, the old, the destitute, the heroic, or the 

like. 

News Item 

Another drop of $2,000 in the price of 
New York Stock Exchange seats was 
recorded yesterday when the member¬ 
ship of Irving C. Knox, deceased, was 
posted for transfer to Russell S. Hume 
for $91,000 and the seat of Alexander 
H. Brown was sold to James F. Byrne 
for $90,000. The last previous sale was 
for $92,000. 

Charles C. Auchincloss was elected a 
member to succeed Frederick S. Moseley 
and Walter B. Snyder to succeed George 
W. Thompson. 


Opening Paragraphs of News Stories 

1 

America’s Unknown Soldier Buried at Arlington 

Washington, Today. — In the soil of the homeland, mixed with 
the soil of France, surrounded by a bodyguard of silent heroes to 
keep watch and ward with him over freedom through eternity, 
America’s unknown soldier found his rest today. 

It was a dual burial. For, while his perishable body was laid 
away at Arlington, whose clay in the past has been made sacred by 
the dust of so many patriotic Americans, his real self, in President 
Harding’s eloquent phrase, was finding its tomb in the heart of the 
nation. 

A crash of guns, the golden pathos of bugles sounding a soldier’s 
requiem, the ponderous pounding of heavy artillery in the presidential 
salute were his country’s godspeed. 

No mightier farewell was ever said to any conqueror, any prince 
or potentate, any Alexander or Caesar or Napoleon, any Nelson or 
Paul Jones or Dewey, any Washington or Lincoln, McKinley or 
Roosevelt, any martyr, prophet, statesman or patriot. 





200 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


The head of the strongest nation in the world had trudged on 
foot behind the funeral car of this everyday man of the people. 
Admirals and generals and cabinet members had stood, bareheaded 
and humbled, before his coffin. The proudest place in the nation’s 
Valhalla had been set aside to be his tomb. The commerce of an 
empire had halted for a short space in a silent testimonial of esteem. 
— The Evening Mail. 

2 

CROWD VIEWING 
DENIM PARADE 
A BIG SUCCESS 


From 20,000 to 30,000 people, “as 
advertised,” figured in the “Blue Denim 
Revolution” held today as a part of 
the campaign to make it possible for 
a person of ordinary means to enter 
a clothing store, buy a suit of clothes, 
and emerge with his watch, chain, and 
scarf pin intact. 

But they didn’t parade. 

They stood on the side lines, these 
masses of comparatively poorly clad 
people, and watched a mere 300 well- 
dressed, so to speak, champions of a 
cause pass by in form-fit overalls. 
Two elephants, 100 movie picture men, 
four camels, three horses, a motor¬ 
cycle, and a Ford were included in the 
300. The elephants wore blue denim. 
They looked better in it than most of 
the paraders. The horses wore the 
conventional chestnut, bay, and dapple. 

The procession took only about 
three minutes to pass a given point, 
no cafes being open. 

Maybe it was the weather, which 







PUBLICATION 201 

was a bit cold for blue denim. Maybe 
it was a fear held by all cautious men 
that if they came right out in public 
in overalls somebody would'hand them 
a pick and suggest that they go to 
work. And then again, maybe, it was, 
as Sam Hoffenstein of the A. H. 

Woods offices, himself a Cheese Club 
man, said: “The founders of this over¬ 
alls movement made a mistake by 
appearing in overalls too many days 
in advance of the scheduled parade. 

People took a look at them — and im¬ 
mediately hurried to the nearest cloth¬ 
ing store and ordered a good suit 
at any price!” 

Anyhow the Blue Denim Revolution 
as a parade must go down in history 
with the one recently attempted by 
another gentleman named after an 
article of clothing — Mr. Kapp of 
Berlin. — The Globe. 

3 

Onrushing Jaguar Slain by Girl 

If you were a girl, alone in a South American jungle, and an 
angry tiger appeared suddenly not thirty feet away, headed for 
you with fiery eyes and open jaws, what would you do? 
Miss Katherine MacGregor of Waupaca, Wis., who is staying 
now at 106 Morningside Drive, achieved the obvious. She picked 
up her rifle and killed the onrushing tiger. 

It all happened in the space 
usually occupied by a couple of 
heartbeats, but Miss Mac¬ 
Gregor’s heart suspended opera¬ 
tion for the moment, judging 
from the story of the adventure 
she told today. 


Miss MacGregor has just 
returned from seven months’ 
wandering in the wilds of South 
America, and is planning to 
return for more exploration. 
Among her trophies is the skin 
of the tiger — it really was a 







202 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


jaguar, but isn’t popularly known 
as such, and is equally fierce by 
any name. 

“I had become separated from 
the Indian guides,” Miss Mac¬ 
Gregor said, “and was crawling 
through the jungle on my 
stomach hunting a tiger, when 
I suddenly came on an Indian 
who had just killed one. At 
the sight of me he was frightened 
and ran away. Beside the dead 
tiger were two cubs, and I ran 


forward to get them. I supposed 
the dead tiger was the mother. 

“While 1 was playing with 
the cubs the mother suddenly 
appeared at the edge of the 
little clearing where I was. I 
was badly frightened, but I 
picked up my gun and killed 
her. There wasn’t any time to 
spare. It was the ‘lady or the 
tiger’ and I didn’t propose 
that it should be the lady.” 
— The Sun . 


EXERCISES 

1. Compare the three news stories as to purpose, style, and 
effectiveness. 

2. Clip from a newspaper and bring to class three news items 
and three news stories. Which of the six is most interesting? 
Which gives worth-while information in the most compact form? 

Headlines. Headlines advertise and summarize the 
news and thus save the time of the reader by giving him 
the news briefly worded and guiding him to the write-ups 
in which he is particularly interested. Specimens 1 and 
2 below are single headlines; 3 and 4, decked headlines. 
Notice that a verb is either expressed or understood in 
each division. In writing headlines, pay attention to the 
width of a newspaper column; find words that fit the 
space. Omit all articles and unnecessary prepositions, 
conjunctions, and auxiliaries. Avoid blind headlines like 
Big Calamity and Great Excitement, which carry no news. 
Instead, summarize as definitely as possible the write-up. 

In especially conservative newspapers a headline never 
extends beyond one column; in most newspapers it may 
cover two, three, or four columns or the entire front page. 
The “yellow” journals print across the front page, some¬ 
times in red or green ink, scare-heads in large type. 



PUBLICATION 


203 


1 

Big Trade at Christmas 

Is Laid to Prohibition 


2 

Larsen Monoplane Sets Out 
For a Non-Stop Air Record 


3 


GOOD COOKING WINS $60,000 

Philadelphian Wills Money and 
Auto to His Housekeeper. 



One Thousand Messages From 
All Lands Received by Ex- 
President on Birthday. 


VINDICATION IS PREDICTED 


He Spends the Day Quietly Tak» 
ing Auto Ride After the 
Family Dinner. 











204 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


EXERCISES 

1. Paste in your notebook three single and three decked head¬ 
lines. Which best summarize the news? Are “picture” words used? 

2. Bring to class two newspapers. Compare the headlines. 

Leads. The lead, a distinctive feature of the news¬ 
paper write-up, is a brief introductory paragraph which 
summarizes the news story, indicates what is to be 
featured, and usually answers the questions: Who? What? 
When? Where? Why? How? Kipling says, 

I keep six honest serving men 
(They taught me all I know) 

Their names are What, and Why, and When, 

And How, and Where, and Who. 

1 

PARIS, Dec. 28. — Possibly as a 
concession to French susceptibilities 
the Belgians have decided to alter the 
the name of Waterloo. Henceforth the 
hamlet which gave the name to the 
immortal battle will be known as 
Loncin. 

2 

That the present situation in college 
athletics is filled w r ith dangers that 
threaten not only the welfare, but the 
future existence, of college sports was 
the warning note sounded by Dr. G. L. 

Meylan of Columbia University before 
the Society of Directors of Physical 
Education in Colleges, who held their 
twenty-fifth annual meeting at the 
Hotel Astor yesterday. Dr. Meylan’s 
remarks were made in the course of 
his address on “The Place of Inter¬ 
collegiate Athletics in a Physical Edu¬ 
cation Program,” which wns one of the 
features of the morning session. 






PUBLICATION 


205 


Clinging to the side of a careening 
taxicab and sending shot "after shot 
at another taxicab in flight, a police¬ 
man seeking to catch three bandits 
who a moment before had held up the 
Horn & Hardart Automat restaurant 
at 1447 Broadway, within a block of 
Times Square, brought hundreds of 
persons to the curb early this morning 
to witness a stirring chase. 

4 

Three men held up the cashier and 
ten patrons in the Automat restaurant, 

Broadway and Forty-first street, shortly 
before 3 o’clock this morning, took $16 
in small change from the cashier’s cage, 
and fled in a taxi. They were pursued 
by police in other taxicabs, but finally 
made their escape after an interchange 
of shots. 

EXERCISES 

1. Which of the six questions does each lead answer? 

2. With what grammatical element does each lead begin? In 
what other ways may the lead begin? Clip and bring to class 
illustrations. 

3. Models 3 and 4 report the same crime. What is to be featured 
in each story? 

4. Write the leads for three write-ups of school, town, or 
city happenings. Underscore the words that indicate what is 
to be featured in the story. Which of the six questions does 
each lead answer? 

Arrangement of a write-up. A newspaper write-up 
tells the story two or three times and has the point or 
climax at the beginning. The headlines give the most 








206 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


important facts; the lead tells the story briefly; the 
remaining paragraphs give details, often in time order. 
This arrangement, which makes a write-up resemble an 
upside-down pyramid, makes it possible for the reader in 
a half hour to get a maximum of news from the paper by 
scanning the headlines and reading many leads and 
several stories. Another reason for the arrangement is 
that later news or limited space frequently makes neces¬ 
sary the cutting of articles. Hence the reporter or editor 
writes up the happening in such a way that cutting off 
the last paragraphs will not make the story seem un¬ 
finished. 

Paragraphs. The newspaper paragraph, which varies in 
length from fifty to a hundred words, is substantially 
shorter than the magazine or composition paragraph, in 
which an average of one hundred fifty words is common. 
Because the article may be cut at any point, paragraphs 
are not closely joined. Each paragraph, however, should 
be rigidly unified. The emphatic position in the para¬ 
graph, as in the entire write-up, is the beginning. 

Sentences. The sentences should be clear, terse, unified, 
and varied in length and structure. Have clearly in 
mind what you wish to say, and make your points clear 
to the man on the street. Don’t change the subject or 
the voice of the verb needlessly. When possible, use the 
active voice. Mix long and short sentences. Avoid the 
excessive use of the compound sentence; frequently sub¬ 
ordinate one of the ideas and make the sentence complex. 
After completing the write-up, see whether you can cross 
out at least one useless word in each sentence. The first 
words of the sentences should be attractive and vigorous 
enough to entice busy men and women to read farther in 
the write-up. 

Words. An inflated, roundabout style is sometimes called 
“journalese” because many country editors and some city 


PUBLICATION 


207 


reporters seem unable or unwilling to call a thing by its 
name and to tell the news in simple, pointed English. 
In “journalese” people do not live in houses, “they reside 
in residences”; fires are not put out, but “conflagrations 
are extinguished”; the law does not hang rogues, but it 
“launches into eternity the victims of unbridled passions”; 
people do not send for the doctor, but “call into requisition 
the services of the family physician”; they do not die, 
but “the spirit wings its flight into eternity”; a man does 
not breakfast, but he “discusses the morning repast”; he 
does not go to bed, but “retires to his downy couch”; 
he does not go to church, but “attends divine service”; 
women are not married, but “led to the hymeneal altar.” 

Shun shop-worn, overworked words like fine, nice, 
wonderful, factor, and according to. Search out vigorous, 
exact, concrete words. Strike out building and animal 
and write in thirty-story Gothic skyscraper, tiny green-and- 
white bungalow, sleek Maltese cat, or dirty rat terrier. 


EXERCISE 

Translate the “ journalese ” into simple, accurate, straightforward 
English: 

1. They were eagerly hastening towards their parental domicile. 

2. After doing the “light fantastic” act for two hours, they retired 
to an adjoining apartment to partake of some liquid refreshments. 

3. After being the recipients of numerous favors and participating 
for some weeks in the hospitalities of their host, they took their 
departure. 4. Before she was led to the hymeneal altar, she had 
charge of the culinary department of a prominent hotel. 5. Har¬ 
vard’s football gladiators will do battle this afternoon with Yale’s 
army of pigskin chasers. 6. The blushing bride was handsomely 
attired in a creation of white Spanish lace made over georgette. 
7. The ornate decorations were wonderful and reflect to the full 
the remarkable ingenuity of the Senior ( lass. 


208 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


PRACTICE 

1. Write up for the local paper items of school, community, 
town, city, state, or national news. Get all the facts before you 
begin to write. Don’t distort the truth or give your opinion. 
Remember that most people read only the vivid and entertaining 
news stories. Direct quotations are more vivid than indirect. 

2. Write a newspaper account of the death of Caesar, the 
Battle of Philippi, the robbery of Silas Marner, the finding of 
Dunstan Cass’s skeleton, the capture of Torquilstone, the dis¬ 
appearance of Ichabod Crane, the return of Rip Van Winkle, the 
acquittal of Charles Darnay, the trial of Antonio, the murder of 
Duncan, Webster’s First Bunker Hill Oration, Irving’s Voyage, 
Odysseus and Polyphemus, or some incident in a book you are 
reading. 

3. Prepare to speak or write on 1, on 2 or 3, on 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 
or 9, and on one other topic: 

1. My favorite newspaper, and why I prefer it. 2. Comparison 
of two newspapers: arrangement, domestic news, foreign news, 
business, sports, drama, headlines, English, illustrations, editorials, 
special features, advertisements, class of readers, fairness, accuracy. 
3. A visit to a newspaper office. 4. The morgue. 5. The linotype 
machine. 6. The stereotyping process. 7. The printing press. 
8. Editorial rooms. 9. The business department. 10. Editing 
copy. 11. The cost of newspaper publication and of advertising 
in a newspaper. 12. Influence of the American newspaper. 
13. The Associated Press. 14. Why read • the daily paper? 
15. How to read the newspaper. 16. Why read the sporting 
page? 17. How news is gathered. 18. Newspaper campaigns. 
19. Should newspapers publish full accounts of crimes? 

Editorial. Arthur Brisbane says, “An editorial can do 
four important things: teach, attack, defend, praise.” 
He adds that teaching is the most important, attacking 
is the easiest, and defending and praise are often neglected. 
As the editor aims to guide public opinion by a skillful 
use of persuasion, the writer must put himself in the 
place of the reader and look at the issue from his angle. 


PUBLICATION 


209 


A Hero of Peace 

By the death of Dr. Howard B. 
Cross in Vera Cruz the .advancing 
army of skilled scientists has lost 
another gallant soldier in its unre¬ 
mitting war on yellow fever. Dr. Cross, 
the second American physician to die 
of the disease in Vera Cruz in a year, 
was only 32 years old. He was a 
bacteriologist of the Rockefeller Insti¬ 
tute, and he went to death knowing his 
peril and his mission. 

Dr. Jesse W. Lazear, who went to 
Havana in 1900 with a commission 
of medical officers of the United 
States Army, purposely had himself 
bitten by an infected mosquito in an 
experiment to discover the source of 
the bacillus. He died in a short time. 
Dr. James Carroll, making a similar 
experiment, suffered the disease and 
narrowly escaped death. Dr. Walter 
Reed died as a result of his labors in 
the infected zone. Many a private 
soldier in those days when the problem 
was the quest of the germ, volunteered 
and deliberately contracted the malady 
to aid the bacteriologists. 

By such sacrifices was the germ 
traced to a mosquito and the disease 
vastly reduced in our Southern States, 
in Cuba and in Mexico. The germ 
itself still baffles the physicians. But 
as long as there are determined, un¬ 
selfish men like Dr. Cross and his 
predecessors who risk their lives in 
this less spectacular but perilous war¬ 
fare, we may hope that this and similar 
enemies of humanity will be further 
and further reduced. — The Sun. 





210 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


EXERCISES 

1. What is the purpose of this editorial from the New York Sun ? 

2. Compare the editorials of three papers. Which are most 
readable? most convincing? What is the purpose of each editorial? 
Is use made of sarcasm, irony, invective, satire, humor, illustra¬ 
tions, direct quotations, literary or historical allusions, statistics? 
Is the paper conservative or progressive? Republican, Democratic, 
or independent? 

3. Write an editorial for a local paper. Discuss public officials, 
taxes, tariff, traffic regulations, railroads, business conditions, 
labor unions, candidates for public office, foreign affairs, or a 
problem of the day. Teach, attack, defend, or praise. 

4. Write an editorial to arouse public interest in a need of 
the community — public playground, park, better public library, 
new high-school building, rest parlors, apartment houses, better 
street-car service, community singing, community theater, estab¬ 
lished lecture course, better gas, sidewalks, citizens with more 
civic pride, a new town hall, more street lights, civic centers, 
municipal market, better train service, paved streets. 

5. Bring to class three convincing letters to the editor. What 
is the purpose of each? How does this type of letter differ in form 
from the ordinary business letter? 

6. Write a letter to the editor of a local paper on a subject like 
law enforcement or automobile regulation in which everybody is 
interested. Inform, convince, and persuade. 

Books About the Newspaper 

Bleyer: Newspaper Writing and Editing 
Blythe: Making a Newspaper Man 
Dibblee: The Newspaper 
Given: Making a Newspaper 

Harrington and Frankenberg: Essentials in Journalism 

Harrington: Typical Newspaper Stories 

Hemstreet: Reporting for the Newspapers 

Holt: Commercialism and Journalism 

Hyde: Handbook for Newspaper Workers 

Hyde: Newspaper Reporting and Correspondence 








PUBLICATION 


211 


Hyde: Newspaper Editing 
Opdycke: News , Ads, and Sales 
Ross: The Writing of News 

// 

School Paper 

Departments and special features. One school paper 
has these departments: literature, school notes, alumni 
notes, sports, grinds, timely topics, exchanges, book 
reviews, art, and editorials. Some department headings 
in other school papers are verse, rhymesters, scribblers’ 
corner, snapshots, one who sees, among ourselves, societies, 
clubbery, local news, current events, class notes, room 
news, gossip, parties, stories, essays, jokes, humor, assem¬ 
blies, freshmen, commercial news, dramatics, music, odds 
and ends, library corner, athletics, limelight, cartoons, 
junior high school, debating, thoughts and tickles, school 
improvements, and visitors. Some papers introduce such 
special features as story contests, verse contests, articles 
about unusual experiences of teachers and pupils, and 
letters from the alumni. 

Write-ups. Many school papers are uninviting because 
all articles are news items written without a thought of 
attracting or entertaining readers. Other papers go to 
the opposite extreme and affect a humorous, satirical, 
or inflated style throughout. Fortunately there is a happy 
middle ground between dullness and smartness. To make 
your write-up effective, (1) catch the attention with an 
original first sentence; (2) feature something; (3) search 
out human-interest specific details; (4) use “picture” 
words; (5) when possible, quote directly; (6) introduce 
humorous touches. 


EXERCISE 

Criticize the three write-ups. Point out the best and worst 
about each. Is the opening sentence inviting? Does the article 
give definite information? Would it attract readers? 





212 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


1 

With the City Fathers 

One recent Tuesday afternoon some 
of the members of the civics classes 
had an interesting experience. They 
visited City Hall and attended a meet¬ 
ing of the Board of Aldermen. The 
sergeant-at-arms had kindly reserved 
the front row of the gallery for them. 

The minute President Moran rapped 
with his gavel all the fellows sat up and 
took notice. Then the roll was called. 
Yes, many times that afternoon the roll 
was called. Some of us knew the roll by 
heart. Each boy singled out his own 
alderman and took notes on what he 
said and how he voted. Hot disputes 
took place over Sunday baseball, a new 
roof for the Board of Education building, 
the licensing of motormen, and other 
matters. Some of the aldermen grew 
so excited that they shouted across 
the chamber at each other, and Presi¬ 
dent Moran’s gavel came down like 
a sledge hammer. The talker’s prize 
should have been given to an alderman 
in the rear on the left. He talked 
long, loud, and often. 

All the fellows had a fine time. 
They want to go to City Hall every 
Tuesday instead of staying in school. 


2 

Shop Mascot 

“Hey, Splinter, get out!” No, 
gentle reader, this is not a young 
carpenter ordering a fragment of wood 
to leave his finger. It is Mr. Carling 
ordering our mascot to vacate a beau- 







PUBLICATION 


213 


tifully printed basketball schedule not 
yet dry. One morning on entering 
the shop Mr. Carling’s foot hit some¬ 
thing soft. It was a small "black and 
white kitten. He picked it up and took 
it in the class where it will answer to 
the name of Splinter until its nine 
lives are over. 


3 

At the Circus 

The senior girls’ circus, which was 
given in the gymnasium on Friday 
night, October 16, for fhe benefit of 
the Athletic Association, was not only 
a novelty but also a good enter¬ 
tainment. 

The circus opened with a series of 
side-shows which featured the snake 
charmer, who fascinated her animals 
with weird incantations, the Siamese 
twins, the fortune teller, and anti-fat, 
who caused the audience to shriek 
with laughter. The great parade was 
arranged as follows: band, side-shows, 
clowns, Japanese dancers, and back¬ 
ward dancers. The costumes of the band 
were left entirely with the girls, and 
they all had a glorious time ransacking 
rag-bags and trunks for the desired 
antediluvian clothing. One of the best 
was that of the bandmaster, who wore 
a high brown-fur hat with an elastic 
band under her chin, orange-and-black 
trousers, a frock coat, stiff-bosom shirt, 
and a flaring bow tie. She was indeed 
a picture for Puck. 

Some unsuspected talent was found 
and exhibited in tight-rope walking 
and bareback riding acts. The travel¬ 
ing musicians, the monkey, and the 







214 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


clowns added to the evening’s enjoy¬ 
ment. Five clowns played in the Ford 
pantomime. The joy-riders were an¬ 
noyed by gasoline and tire troubles. 
The driver finally met her fate when 
the charming roadster hit a bump in 
the road. Then the other clowns, 
insulted and embarrassed, went home 
feeling just a little bit the worse for 
the ride. 

After the last act a happy crowd 
filed out of the gymnasium. Many 
declared that the senior girls’ circus 
should be an annual event. 


PRACTICE 

Write up for the school paper an excursion, an entertainment, 
a club, a speech, a dance, a class meeting, or unusual classroom 
activities or happenings. Inform, picture, entertain. 

Humor, Wit, Ridicule, and Satire 

Ridicule consists in making the failings, errors, or vices 
of men the subject of good-natured banter. 

Satire consists in laying open to ridicule private or 
public weaknesses, follies, or vices for the purpose of 
reforming men. 

Wit is a neat turn of speech in which disconnected 
ideas or words are associated in such a way as to produce 
an amusing surprise; as, 

When the Chief Justice threatened to commit Sheridan, that 
gentleman replied, “It will be the best thing you ever committed.” 

Humor is that tone which, running through a composi¬ 
tion, provokes in the reader a good-natured feeling that 
breaks out in a smile, sometimes a laugh. It arises from 
the joining of things that are incongruous, and from 
presenting objects and ideas in an odd and unusual light. 
It does not, like wit, break out and sparkle at points, but 




PUBLICATION 


215 


permeates every part of the subject with a genial glow 
of delight. Humor is always kindly; it never attempts 
to injure or destroy, but is ever bathed in sympathy or 
tenderness. It laughs not at men and things, but with 
them. 

Among the kinds of composition in which wit and humor 
play a prominent part are: 

1. Parody, in which some great or serious subject is 
degraded by being applied to something of a lighter or 
lower nature. The degradation is effected by the change 
of some of the words of the original; as, 

To marry, or not to marry, that is the question. 

2. Mock-heroic, which treats mean or trivial things 
as if they were of vast importance. Pope’s Rape of the 
Lock is an example. 

3. Burlesque, which amuses by representing a person 
as acting a part that is unsuited to his character or by 
placing him in situations unbecoming his actual station 
in society. 

EXERCISE 

Classify each of these as wit or humor. Give a reason for each 
answer. 

1. “Do you think I shall have justice done me?” said a culprit 
to his counsel, a shrewd Kentucky lawyer of the best class of that 
eloquent state. “I am a little afraid that you will not,” replied the 
other; “I see two men on the jury who are opposed to'hanging.” 

2. Some one threw a head of cabbage at an Irish orator while 
he was making a speech. He paused a second, and said, “Gentle¬ 
men, I asked only for your ears; I don’t care for your heads.” 

3. All the time, Mr. Winkle, with his face and hands blue with 
the cold, had been forcing a gimlet into the soles of his feet, and 
putting his skates on with the points behind, and getting the straps 
into a very complicated and entangled state, with the assistance of 
Mr. Snodgrass, who knew rather less about skates than a Hindoo. 

4. His son was generally seen trooping like a colt at his mother’s 
heels, equipped in a pair of his father’s cast-off galligaskins, which 


216 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


he had much ado to hold up with one hand, as a fine lady does 
her train in bad weather. 

5. An absent-minded professor, in going out of the gate of his 
college, ran against a cow. In the confusion of the moment, he 
raised his hat and exclaimed, “I beg your pardon, madam.” Soon 
after, he stumbled against a lady in the street. In sudden recollec¬ 
tion of his former mishap, he called out, “Is that you again, you 
brute?” 

6. Two sons of the Green Isle, traveling, came in sight of a 
gibbet, or gallows, in a lonely field. One of them said to the other, 
“Where would you be if that gallows had its due?” “Oh!” he 
replied, “I should be traveling alone.” 

7. You are too severe on the widow. It is not that she paints 
so badly; but, when she has finished her face, she joins it on so 
badly with the neck that she looks like a mended statue, in which 
the connoisseur may see at once that the head is modern and the 
trunk is antique. 

8. Plato having defined man to be a biped without feathers, 
Diogenes plucked a rooster and carried it to Plato’s school, with 
the remark, “Here’s Plato’s man.” 

9. “It was probable,” said the Indian king, as they viewed 
Westminster Abbey, “that when this great work was begun, which 
must have been many hundred years ago, there was some religion 
among this people; for they give it the name of a temple, and 
have a tradition that it was designed for men to pay their devotions 
in. And indeed there are several reasons which make us think that 
the natives of this country had formerly among them some sort of 
worship; for they set apart every seventh day as sacred; but upon 
my going into one of these holy houses on that day, I could not 
observe any circumstance of devotion in their behavior; there was 
indeed a man in black who was mounted above the rest, and seemed 
to utter something with a great deal of vehemence; but as for those 
underneath him, instead of paying their worship to the Deity of 
the place, they were most of them bowing and courtesying to one 
another, and a considerable number of them were fast asleep.” 

10. Snapshots. — Our second annual field day has been held 
and is now a thing of the past, but in the minds of the spectators 
it will live forever. The admission was ten cents, but it was worth 
ten dollars. Suffice it to say that those of us who went to the 
games with the sole intention of getting a good laugh at the expense 
of the teachers — if there were any inspired with this criminal intent 
— were pleasantly, or shall we say sadly, disappointed. The feature 


PUBLICATION 


217 


event of the day, and the one which brought out the most spec¬ 
tators, and caused the most cheering, was of course the 120-yard 
dash open only to the respected members of the faculty. Over 
twenty of our fame-hungry teachers responded to the call, and 
practiced faithfully for the event. Not in the gym of course, for 
what teacher would display his sturdy build and bare shanks to the 
rude eyes of the schoolboy, but 

“Between the dark and the daylight, 

When no one was in sight, 

Huge and lumbering figures 
Rushed by and into the night.” 

The figures were those of a few of our teachers. And the fast 
time in which they ran the 120-yard handicap proved the effective¬ 
ness of this practice. To hold such a run weekly or monthly would 
be a good thing for the pedagogues. Then they would have to 
keep in condition all the time, and we would not have so many 
stout people around the building. 

PRACTICE 

Have you seen something humorous in or about school? Write 
it up for the Snapshot page. If you picture what you saw, your 
readers will laugh too. 

Informal or Familiar Essay 

Mr. A. C. Benson says, “The true essay, then, is a 
tentative and personal treatment of a subject; it is a 
kind of improvisation on a delicate theme; a species of 
soliloquy, as if a man were to speak aloud the slender 
and whimsical thoughts that come into his mind when 
he is alone on a winter evening before a warm fire, and, 
closing his book, abandons himself to the luxury of genial 
reverie.” He adds that the familiar essay is natural, clear, 
and rambling. 

Syncopated Movies 

When you step into a motion-picture theater today, you notice 
a large crowd of men seated down toward the front of the house. 
It looks like a convention. Observe more closely, and you will see 


218 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


this convention has fiddles and horns. Suddenly they oblige you 
with a selection, and you discover that they are in reality the 
' theater’s orchestra with specially arranged compositions for the big 
feature pictures, with swiftly shifted and appropriate tunes for the 
* news pictorials, and with light little ditties for the comedy. 

The key-man to this aggregation is the short, nimble individual 
who sits over on the right wing among the hardware. He is a man 
of action and a man of many affairs. One of his eyes is on the film, 
and the other is on his broad array of tools, because his action and 
that on the screen must be perfectly synchronized. When in a 
classical mood, he is known as a tympanist, but in a lighter vein he 
is the trap-drummer. There are drums to the right of him, drums 
to the left of him, and on them he volleys and thunders. 

He has some three hundred assorted noises, tumults, clamors, 
uproars, explosions, groans, hoots, ana dull sickening thuds ranged 
about him on all kinds of stands, racks, chairs, or even on the floor. 
Among the other traps is the conventional whistle, adjustable for 
all tones. It may imitate a shriek, a laugh, or a sigh, while another 
whistle provides for the natural noises of a cow, duck, or chicken. 

Believing in being prepared, the trap-drummer is fond of shopping 
for noises. The junk-shops carry many of his favorite brands. 
They have fine clinking chains, iron gates, steel bars with a lusty 
ring to them, and pieces of tin roof with rare scraping capabilities. 
Hardware stores provide sandpaper, buckshot, washboards, brass 
pipes, and other racket makers. And when he bangs and rattles 
on this collection, people have the nerve to call it music. 

The Responsibility of Being a Perfect Baby 

Did you ever contemplate the responsibilities that a baby has 
from the ga-ga stage to the time of his enrollment in kindergarten? 
The baby who shoulders the most responsibility is not the first but 
the last in a large family — for have not all before him been perfect? 
He must try to excel them. If his brothers and sisters gurgled when 
chucked under the chin by some playful friend of the family, he 
of course must do likewise; only more vigorously must he ga and coo. 

When his spinster aunt exclaims, “Isn’t it too sweet for words?” 
or “I could hug it to death,” he must not be indignant that Aunty 
considers him sexless, but must gurgle long but not loudly, punctu¬ 
ating the gurgles with ga-ga, ar-ar, or anything that sounds similar 
to Aunty. This will please her so much that a woolly bowwow or 
a dollar towards baby’s college education fund will be the result. 


PUBLICATION 219 

If baby performs flawlessly, undoubtedly he will be the proud 
possessor of both. 

When company comes, he must realize that he is on exhibition, 
that his position in the family, that of the perfect baby, must be 
upheld. He must allow all present to fondle him; he must suppress 
his desire for the dangling cherries oh Mrs. Brown’s hat, Grandpa’s 
beard, and the little girl’s red braids and freckles. 

At baptism he must remember not to disgrace his family. No 
matter how insistently his fingers urge him to clutch the minister’s 
hair, or how badly he wants to scream, he must make his fingers 
behave and his voice be still for the honor of the family! Thus 
Sunday and other days from his morning bath to his bedtime must 
he remember that he is the perfect baby. 


PRACTICE 

Read some of the entertaining informal essays in Tanner’s 
Essays and Essay Writing. Then write on a topic from Tanner’s 
excellent list on pages 301-307. 

EXERCISE 

Which of the six suggestions for a write-up are carried out in 
these two paragraphs of the report of a baseball game and in the first 
paragraph of the report of a speaking contest? 

The Technical Game 

To those loyal students who witnessed the Technical game, let 
it be a lesson and let them think of the words of that great Irish 
philosopher who said, “Never give away nothin’ free.” That was 
what was the matter in the collision with Technical. Evens, our 
portside slab artist, could not put the ball over in the fatal sixth 
frame. He gave four free rides to first base, and Technical did 

the rest. 

But wonders will never cease. For the first time in years the 
team played errorless ball. Three boom-chicka-booms for the team! 
All the bitterness was taken out of the defeat by that fact. Such 
a thing as an errorless ball game among high-school teams is as 
rare as frogs’ feathers. 


220 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


Semi-annuals 

On the evening of December 5, the Fourteenth Semi-Annual 
Declamation Contest was held in our auditorium. The contest was 
unique in several respects. In the first division, that devoted to 
orations, we were accustomed to listen to orations that had been 
written by great orators, and become literature; but in this con¬ 
test each oration was both written and delivered by the contestant. 
Another reform was the addition of a completely new division, the 
one devoted to extemporaneous speeches. The method of con¬ 
ducting this part of the contest was as follows: each contestant 
was given a copy of the same list of six subjects on the day before 
the contest. One-half hour before the speaker appeared on the 
platform, he was allowed to draw two subjects and speak on the 
one which appealed to him more. 


PRACTICE 

Report an athletic or speaking contest or a debate for the school 
paper. Avoid technicalities that readers will not understand and 
indiscriminate use of sporting slang. Feature something — team¬ 
work, coaching, pitching, fighting spirit, good sportsmanship, a 
brilliant play. 

Book report. A book report may include reproduction 
of the entire plot, the most exciting happening, or some¬ 
thing else of interest; recitation of memory selections; 
the reading aloud of a suitable selection; discussion of 
such topics as the kind, time, place, principal scenes, 
plot, characters, beginning, ending, situations, surprise, 
suspense, contrast, climax, use of English, theme, evidence 
of author’s character and personality, reasons for liking 
or disliking the book, and a comparison with other books 
of the same author or of other authors. 

The Book of Bok 

If you were a boy who had to go to work at the age of thirteen 
instead of continuing your schooling, and yet were determined to 
educate yourself, how would you go to work to do it? 


PUBLICATION 


221 


Well, one very interesting and persevering boy who found himself 
in this fix did this: he wrote to several prominent people and told 
them he wanted to educate himself and asked them how they had 
managed it. * 

Very few really big men and women are able to resist this kind 
of appeal from a boy, and young Edward Bok, who came to America 
from Holland, soon found himself in possession of many friends that 
money or social position could not buy, but just being an earnest, 
straightforward, ambitious boy could make for him. 

Imagine receiving a letter from General Garfield about his tow- 
path days; of dining with General and Mrs. Grant at the Fifth 
Avenue Hotel; of being driven home from a meeting by President 
Hayes; of breakfasting with Oliver Wendell Holmes and going to 
the theater with Longfellow all in the same day! Other boyhood 
friends of Edward Bok were Phillips Brooks, Henry Ward Beecher, 
Wendell Phillips, and Louisa Alcott. 

Such associations were indeed worth many years of study in 
schools and colleges, for after all, in education, men count for more 
than books, much as we love books. 

You will look a long time for a more inspiring autobiography 
than the one written under the title of The Americanization of 
Edward Bok. 

It is the story of one of the most interesting boyhoods and suc¬ 
cessful careers ever recorded. It all began right here in Brooklyn 
and New York, and we still believe any boy in America with the 
same qualities of courage and industry can do the same thing. — 
School Library Bulletin. 


PRACTICE 

Write a book review for the school paper. A good book review 
entertains, gives information, and also guides readers in the selec¬ 
tion of books. 

Editorial. Editorials too often are vague and general 
treatments of hackneyed topics and too seldom get down 
to definite information, specific constructive suggestion, 
or a real issue. Don’t think of editorials as bitter medi¬ 
cine which the pupils must swallow; if you do, the pupils 
will get their revenge by skipping the editorial page. 
Don’t tell the woes of the editorial staff or lament that 


222 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


the school spirit of the “old days” has gone forever. 
These are boresome ancient tunes. 


1. A comparison of the old and the new building. 

2. Responsibilities of pupils in the new building. 

No Longer a Dream 

The dream of every loyal Commercial!te has at last been realized; 
the new building is nearly complete. No longer will the visitor, on 
entering and passing through the building, find a geometry class 
holding session on the front steps, a Latin class pouring forth the 
orations of Cicero from the library, or a physical-training class gaily 
tripping the highland fling in a small corner of the assembly hall. 
Soon he will pass through an elaborate entrance, cross a hallway, 
and find himself in a spacious auditorium. He will find the physi¬ 
ography class in the physiography room and the sewing class in a 
sewing room. If he should wish to take a trip to Mars, he could 
climb up our lofty tower and find himself well on the way. 

And now, fellow pupils, that we have our building, let us prove 
ourselves worthy of it, not only by impulsive outbursts but by sincere 
and constant attention to duty. Let us place Commercial at the 
head of the list in scholarship, athletics, and good school citizenship. 


1. Lack of sportsmanship. 

2. Sportsmanship. 

Sportsmanship 

There is no middle ground between fairness and unfairness, 
between sportsmanship and lack of sportsmanship, between honesty 
and dishonesty. Either you are a good sportsman or you are not. 
A few days ago, in a golf game, a man who holds a responsible 
position drove his ball into some woods and lost it. While his friends 
were hunting for it, he dropped another ball out on the course and 
then pretended to find it. His companions saw him cheat. None of 
them said a word, but when they returned to the clubhouse, each of 
them said to him, “I will never play golf or any other game with 
you again,” and walked away. 

On the same day, in another party, a gentleman drove his ball 
into the same woods. He found it and played out, winning the 


PUBLICATION 


223 


hole. As he lifted the ball out of the cup, he discovered that it 
was not his ball, but one that had been lost by somebody else. 
Nobody else knew the truth, nobody could ever discover it if he 
concealed it, the hole was his if he kept still, but he was not that 
sort. “Not my ball,” he said — and the finest thing about it was 
that his opponents made no comment whatever, except to say 
“Too bad.” It was the kind of sportsmanship they were accustomed 
to discover in that gentleman. 


PRACTICE 

Write an editorial for the school paper on clean-up week, school 
loyalty, school sanitation, student government, courtesy, wasted 
time, slang, the dictionary habit, thrift, ambition, the New Year, 
vandalism, vulgarity, street-car rowdyism, lunchroom behavior, 
paper in the school yard and on the street, the Athletic Associa¬ 
tion, a school organization or club, the football team (or another 
team), concentration, the assembly, candidates, value of examina¬ 
tions, fads in dress, a new course of study, a new order of the 
Board of Education, a new rule or regulation, or another topic. 


1 

Today 

“What have you learned today?” said a father not long ago to 
his son, one of our pupils. “Oh, nothing much,” carelessly replied 
the youth, “it’s the same as last term in three of my classes; and 
in the others we have not had much to do yet.” The father was 
serious because his son had not been promoted; the son had 
failed because he was not serious. This son is wasting his father’s 
money and his own opportunity. He is doing what five hundred 
of his fellows are doing — taking it easy, having a good time, but 
failing in their work. This is the principal reason why four out of 
every five boys who come to our school never graduate. It is a 
melancholy thing therefore to look at seven hundred first term boys, 
and to think that before one’s eyes are five hundred and sixty who 
will refuse the chance for a first-class education because they are 
frivolous and lazy. They surely are losing an opportunity to make 
the most of life. 


224 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


2 

Speak English! 

How would you like to be a Chinaman and have to talk Chinese? 
Wouldn’t it be annoying to read a newspaper in the subway from 
top to bottom instead of from side to side? Don’t you think it 
worth while to learn how to talk your own native language, especially 
when it is so popular as to be spoken by one-fourth of the people 
on this great globe of ours? 


3 

Boost 

This is exactly what we want you to do everlastingly — boost, 
boost, boost, and smile. 

4 

Choosing a Vocation 

Sooner or later almost every one is compelled to face this question, 
“How am I going to earn a living?” 


PRACTICE 

1. Using 1 or 2 as the first paragraph or 3 or 4 as the first sen¬ 
tence, write an editorial. 

2. Complete this letter for publication on the editorial page or 
write on another topic. 

To the Editor: 

May I suggest a few changes in the assemblies 
for the entertainment and instruction of the pupils. 

3. Criticize the last number of the school paper. Or explain 
how to make the school paper brighter and better. Or discuss the 
benefits derived from a school paper. 

4. Write an article for a department to which you have not yet 
contributed; for example, a write-up of an assembly, a criticism of 
a moving picture, concert, or play, a story, a poem, or a description. 


PUBLICATION 


225 


AMERICAN SPEECH WEEK NUMBER 

CENTRAL TOM THUMB TIMES 


Published by 12a English Class 


Editors 

Deborah Evans, Editor-in-Chief 
Leon Parry 
Kathryn England 
George Swenson 
Charles Hartwell 


The first Better Speech Week 
was held in the Eastern District 
High School, Brooklyn, in 1915. 
Since that time the movement has 
swept the country. This year 
American Speech Week will be 
observed from Maine to California. 

Central’s slogan is: Be a patriot. 
Speak English. A real patriot is 
proud of his country and its lan¬ 
guage. Our watchwords are audi¬ 
bility , grammar, freedom from dialect. 
To speak in a mumbling, lazy, in¬ 
distinct manner is discourteous and 
annoying. Grammatical errors indi¬ 
cate lack of education. Dialect is 
“fifty-fifty” English — a mixture of 
English with Italian, Russian, Ger¬ 
man, or some other language. 

He May Recover 

“O doctor, tell me quick and clear; 
I must know why I feel so queer.” 
The doctor spoke this sad refrain: 
“Bad English germs are on your 
brain.” 

Bad Company 

Just think of ain't as Kaiser Bill; 
And yeh, a Russian Bolshevik; 

And ur, the grunt of fatted pig. 
Then shun that kind of company. 


Every Monday Morning 

March straight up to the teacher’s 
desk; 

Stand firmly on both feet; 

Look bravely at your fellow-men; 
“Hands off” that dear front seat. 

Which Do You Say? 

Yeh, yep, yuh, uh-huh, or yes. 
Seazem, or sees him. 

Me'n you, or you and I. 

Movin' pitchers, or moving pictures. 
Ancha got ya homework done? or 
Haven't you done your homework? 
He ain't got no money, or 
He hasn't any money. 

Wy doncha tellim so? or 
Why don’t you tell him so? 

Where’d yuh git dat? or 
Where did you get that? 

Whereja go ta? or 
Where did you go to? 

You orta seenim, or 
You ought to have seen him. 

Stop! Look! Listen! 

Stop using slang. 

Look out for mistakes. 

Listen for good English. 

Let there be no traitor to the 
English language. 

Are you a glutton who swallows 
the last syllable of every word? 

Are you afflicted with the this- 
here and that-there disease? 












226 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


Class Paper 

A class paper is less ambitious and expensive than the 
school paper. Copies may be run off on the mimeograph 
or hectograph, or the paper may be read aloud in class 
or the assembly and posted on the bulletin board or placed 
in the library. Commonly the editorial staff serves for 
just one issue. The class may decide what departments 
will be included and select three, four, or five editors-in- 
chief, who then select in rotation the heads of departments. 
Every pupil should have a place on one of the editorial 
staffs. 


PRACTICE 

1. Decide on a name and the departments to be included, select 
editors, and publish a paper. Let the class artist prepare the cover 
and illustrations. 

2. After reading the first page of the American Speech Week 
number of the Central Tom Thumb Times , prepare a class paper 
for a special purpose or occasion: speech week, clean-up week, 
courtesy week, value of a high-school education, athletics, good 
school citizenship, radio, Arbor Day, Christmas, Lincoln’s Birth- 
da}^, or Washington’s Birthday. 

Class Book 

How prepared. In preparing a class book, each pupil 
writes a chapter on some subtopic of the large subject 
chosen by the class. Editors, elected or appointed, 
cooperate with the teacher in planning, supervising, and 
criticizing. The completed book may be prepared in a 
day and put aside when it has served its purpose, or it 
may be the work of a half-term and give evidence of the 
collection of material from books, magazines, and people, 
of systematic class planning, of careful writing, and of 
thorough revision. An introduction, illustrations, and a 
cover design make this term book more attractive. The 


PUBLICATION 


227 


typewritten or pen-written book, either bound or placed 
in a spring-back magazine holder, may be added to the 
school library. 

Uniformity. After the broad subject has been decided 
upon and a subtopic selected by each pupil or assigned 
to each, the class may work out a uniform outline to be 
used in every chapter, and decide just how the work is 
to be arranged, how the source of information taken from 
a book or magazine is to be indicated, and what topics 
are to be treated in the introduction. For example, one 
class preparing a book on vocations decided that each 
pupil should write on these topics: (1) work, (2) oppor¬ 
tunities in the field, (3) remuneration, (4) preparation, 

(5) qualities of a successful worker,. (6) advantages and 
disadvantages of the occupation. Topics considered but 
rejected were the effect of the occupation upon a person, 
opportunities for service to the community, methods of 
entering occupation, and opinions of those in it. The class 
decided that the first falls under (6); the second, under 
(2); the third, under (4); and the fourth, probably under 

(6) . The class voted also to have two introductory chap¬ 
ters on the topics: How to Choose a Vocation and How 
to Succeed in a Vocation. 

Vocations 

1. Accountancy. 2. Advertising. 3. Agriculture. 4. Architec¬ 
ture. 5. Army. 6. Authorship. 7. Biology. 8. Banking. 9. Book¬ 
keeping. 10. Carpentry. 11. Ceramics. 12. Chemical engineering. 
13. Chemistry. 14. Civil engineering. 15. Civil service. 16. Com¬ 
merce. 17. Costume designing. 18. Dentistry. 19. Domestic 
science. 20. Electrical engineering. 21. Electrician. 22. Filing. 
23. Foreign service. 24. Forestry. 25. Horticulture. 26. Indus¬ 
trial engineering. 27. Insurance. 28. Journalism. 29. Landscape 
gardening. 30. Law. 31. Librarian. 32. Literature. '33. Machinery. 
34. Manufacturing. 35. Marine engineering. 36. Mechanical engin¬ 
eering. 37. Medicine. 38. Merchant. 39. Metallurgical engineering. 
40. Mining engineering. 41. Music. 42. Nursing. 43. Optician 


228 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


(Optometry). 44.. Oratory. 45. Osteopathy. 46. Painting. 47. Phar¬ 
macy. 48. Photography. 49. Plumbing. 50. Private secretary. 
51. Railroading. 52. Real estate. 53. Salesmanship. 54. Sanitary 
engineering. 55. Social service. 56. Stenography and typewriting. 
57. Teaching. 58. Theology. 59. Truck gardening. 60. Veterinary 
surgery. 61. Wireless. 

Oral and written book. As you gather material for 
your chapter of the term book, get ready to speak to 
the class on the subject. After your speech jot down 
every criticism of the teacher or a pupil and think how 
you can make the written chapter better than the oral 
one. Before writing, ask yourself these questions: (1) Do I 
thoroughly understand my subject? (2) Can I secure 
additional specific information from people or books? 
(3) Did I use in my speech any facts, figures, quotations, 
or illustrations that are off the subject? (4) Are the ideas 
in each paragraph sensibly arranged? (5) What was 
worst about my speech? 

Electrical Engineering 
Bibliography 

1. Engineering as a Profession — McCullough. 

2. Profitable Vocations for Boys — Weaver. 

3. Vocational Guidance for the Professions. 

4. Occupations — Gowin and Wheatley. 

5. Engineering as a Career — Prominent Engineers. 

Work of an electrical engineer. In treating the different branches 
of engineering, it is difficult to keep the subjects from overlapping. 
Thus, electrical engineering and mechanical engineering are two 
distinct branches of the profession, but an electrical engineer must 
have for a background a knowledge of mechanical engineering, and 
a mechanical engineer must be familiar with the work of the electrical 
engineer. But there are certain kinds of work which distinctly call 
for the services of an electrical engineer. Any work which deals 
with the design, manufacture, installation, or operation of electrical 
machinery comes under the supervision of an electrical engineer. He 
also supervises the construction and operation of electric railroads and 


PUBLICATION 229 

traction lines, electric light plants, and telegraph and telephone 

lines. 

Opportunities in the field. The work of an electrical engineer is 
extensive and varied. If a man has any technical ability, he can 
secure a position in some one of these various branches soon after 
his graduation. If one is lucky enough to graduate in a busy season 
when engineers are in great demand, one can often secure a good 
position before graduation. There are some who say that the field is 
greatly overcrowded, but they are mistaken. The market is flooded 
with draftsmen and electricians who pose as electrical engineers, 
but the demand for well-trained engineers, men who have the theory 
to back up their practical knowledge, is still greater than the supply. 

There is another possibility which must be considered; namely, 
invention. If a boy has inventive genius or originality, the engineer¬ 
ing profession is the place for him. Great progress in dealing with 
electricity has been made in the last twenty years, and it is not 
unreasonable to suppose that still greater progress will be made in 
the next decade. Naturally, it will be the electrical engineers, 
those men who are confronted with the problems of electricity in 
their daily work, who by their inventions and discoveries will make 
this progress possible. 

Remuneration. There is a rather prevalent opiiiion that engineering 
is one of the best-paid professions. If you are intending to study 
engineering because you think that it is the most profitable profession 
to enter, you had better abandon the idea right here. In common 
with most of the other professions, there are great prizes to be had 
at the top of the ladder. In 1914 the wages of electrical engineers 
who had just graduated were from $90-$100 a month. Of course 
their wages have risen since that time in proportion to the increase 
in the salaries of other professions. The fact that the wages for 
men of little experience are low is accounted for when you consider 
that many of the graduates are willing to work for a very low wage 
in order to secure the necessary experience. As one grows older 
and secures some experience, one’s salary is increased in proportion 
to one’s ability. Many engineers, after they have had ten or fifteen 
years’ experience, enter business for themselves and become con¬ 
tractors or consulting engineers. When one reaches this stage, the 
remuneration is very high. A consulting engineer usually charges 
$20 to $25 a day for his services, and prominent engineers have 
been known to charge as high as $500 for a single day’s work. 

Preparation. In preparing for the profession of electrical engineer¬ 
ing, a college course is absolutely essential. For admission to almost 




230 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


any engineering school the following high-school subjects are pre¬ 
requisite: English (3), foreign language (3), history (1), mathematics 
(4), electives (4). In addition some colleges require one year of 
chemistry. If a four-year course is pursued in college, the student 
must resign himself to four years of good hard work. Many colleges 
do not consider four years a long enough time in which to master 
all the branches of the profession; so they have established five- 
and six-year courses. At any rate, a boy who is preparing for the 
engineering profession must not go to college with the idea of enjoy¬ 
ing himself exclusively, for he will soon find out that engineering 
schools were established for workers. 

Qualities of a successful electrical engineer. A boy can find out in 
high school whether he has one of the qualities which a successful 
engineer should possess. If he has more than ordinary difficulty 
in mastering his high-school physics or mathematics, he may as 
well abandon the idea of ever becoming a good engineer. The first 
quality which a successful engineer should have is a liking for physics 
and mathematics. Other qualities which he should possess are close 
observation, sound judgment, mechanical ingenuity, and ability to 
handle men. If a man has these qualities together with a good 
stock of common sense, he can be sure that he will make a success¬ 
ful engineer. 

Advantages and disadvantages of the profession. That the remunera¬ 
tion is not high when the extensive preparation required is taken into 
consideration has been made clear. Another disadvantage is the 
fact that very often it is impossible for an electrical engineer to secure 
a steady position. He is employed to install certain electrical 
machinery; and, when this piece of work is finished, his services are 
no longer required. Because of this fact many very competent 
engineers are never able to secure steady positions and spend their 
entire lives job-hunting. But in spite of these disadvantages, if a 
boy has a real liking for constructive work, if he is mentally alert, 
accurate, trustworthy, and industrious, he can be sure of at least 
moderate success in any branch of the engineering profession. 

Some of the advantages of the profession have been mentioned. 
Nevertheless there is one important advantage which I think ought 
to be brought out; that is, the nature and agreeableness of the 
work itself. An electrical engineer does not have to sit in an office 
all day poring over a list of figures or doing some other equally 
monotonous work. He is right out where the actual work is being 
done; he can see his work grow under his own eyes and can acquire 
a real love for his work. 





Belted Kingfishers 


Young Robins Quarreling at Their Bath 


Courtesy of the National Association of Audubon Societies 
Screech Owls on Fence 


p 231 







232 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


PRACTICE 


The class may plan and write books on vocations, birds, sports, 
health, thrift, our city or community, our school, colleges, home, 
industries, how articles are manufactured, country life, better 
English, better speech, the airplane, safety first, newspapers, 
magazines, travel, labor and capital, textiles, favorite books, 
contemporary poets, novelists, short-story writers, dramatists, 
essayists, orators, statesmen, captains of industry, the greatest 
living Americans, or other topics. 

Birds 

The introduction of the class Bird Book may contain 
themes on Of What Value Are Birdsf How to Protect 
Birds, How to Study Birds, How to Attract Birds. The 
uniform outline to be followed in writing about a bird 
may include these topics: appearance, habits, food, nest and 
eggs, young birds, song. Get most of your ideas first¬ 
hand by observing carefully the bird assigned to you.. 
After careful observation read and talk about the birdv 
Delightful pamphlets and books may be secured from the* 
National Association of Audubon Societies, 1974 Broad¬ 
way, New York City. 


1. Robin. 2. Bam swallow. 3. Chickadee. 4. Baltimore oriole. 
5. Scarlet tanager. 6. English sparrow. 7. Blue jay. 8. Wren. 
9. Partridge. 10. Pheasant. 11. Owl. 12. Hawk. 13. Red-winged 
blackbird. 14. Crow. 15. Woodpecker. 16. Flicker. 17. Whip- 
poor-will. 18. Chimney swift. 19. Kingbird. 20. Phoebe. 21. Pewee. 
22. Starling. 23. Bobolink. 24. Meadow lark. 25. Blackbird. 
26. Purple grackle. 27. Goldfinch. 28. Field sparrow. 29. Song 
sparrow. 30. Cardinal. 31. Vireo. 32. Warbler. 33. Thrush, 
34. Catbird. 35. Brown thrasher. 36. Bluebird. 37. Canary. C' ; 


Sports 

Suggested Outline 


< V 



I. Relative importance, popularity, and appeal of the sport. 
II. Physical and mental qualifications needed to excel in the 
sport. 


PUBLICATION 


233 


III. Comparison with other sports — exercise, fresh air, alert¬ 

ness, concentration, fun, strengthening vital muscles, 
danger of injury or overdoing. 

IV. Chief values. 

1. Baseball. 2. Basketball. 3. Bicycling. 4. Billiards. 5. Bowl¬ 
ing. 6. Boxing. 7. Canoeing. 8. Coasting. 9. Cricket. 10. Croquet. 
11. Dancing. 12. Football. 13. Wrestling. 14. Golf. 15. Hand- 



Australasia and the United States Playing for the 
Championship of the World 


ball. 16. Hiking. 17. Hockey. 18. Hurdling. 19. Jumping. 
20. Mountain climbing. 21. Pole vaulting. 22. Polo. 23. Rowing. 
24. Running. 25. Skating. 26. Skiing. 27. Snowshoeing. 28. Swim¬ 
ming. 29. Tennis. 30. Tobogganing. 31. Another sport. 

Health 

1. Benefits of exercise. 2. How to prevent colds. 3. A sensible 
school lunch. 4. The effect of alcohol. 5. How milk is protected. 
6. Prevention of disease. 7. How to avoid injury on the street. 
8. First aid — drowning, fits, dog bite, nose bleed, insect bite or 
sting, foreign body in eye or ear, toothache, bleeding from cut, 







234 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


body lodged in throat, burn, snake bite, faint, bruise, or poisoning. 
9. Spitting in public. 10. Sanitary conditions in our town (or 
school). 1.1. Care of hair. 12. Care of nails. 13. Why one should 
eat slowly. 14. Care of feet. 15. Fresh air. 16. Clothes. 17. Food 
— variety, bulk, quantity, meat and eggs. 18. Why eat slowly? 
19. Why be cheerful and learn not to worry? 20. Why avoid drugs? 
21. Why stand, sit, and walk erect? 22. Milk as a food. 23. How 
to cook cereals, fruits, meats, vegetables. 24. Are fresh air and 
outdoor exercise the best medicine for nervousness? 25. Ventilation 
in our high school. 26. Vacation suggestions — open air, food, 
sleep, mosquitoes, flies, drinking water. 27. How to prevent or 
destroy flies. 28. How to keep food clean and sweet. 29. Tobacco. 
30. How to prevent tuberculosis. 31. Bathing. 32. How the body 
gets and resists disease. 33. How germs may be destroyed. 34 Why 
the mosquito and fly are dangerous. 35. Three health hints of the 
Life Extension Institute are: (1) Open-work stockings and thin- 
soled shoes worn by women are cordial invitations to colds and 
grippe; (2) Fresh air in the bedroom is all-important, but beware 
of bare feet on a cold floor; (3) Eat some crusty or resistant food, 
some bulky, and some raw food at each meal. Add to this list. 
36. Two rules for the care of the eyes are: (1) Hold the book about 
fourteen inches from your face; (2) Don’t rub your eyes with your 
hands or a dirty handkerchief or cloth. Add to this list. 


Outlines for Industries 

Industries may be viewed from the angle (1) of the 
workers or (2) of the processes. 

1. An Industry 

I. Organization and management. 

II. Work done and workers employed. 

III. Conditions under which employees work. 

IV. Education or training needed. 

V. Opportunities for advancement. 

2. Wool 

I. Comparison with cotton and silk. 

II. History of industry. 

III. Wool-producing countries. 

IV. Care and shearing of sheep. 


PUBLICATION 


235 


V. Manufacturing. 

A. Classing. 

B. Scouring. " 

C. Dyeing. 

D. Combing. 

E. Spinning. 

F. Weaving. 

G. Finishing. 

VI. Wool products. 

Magazines 

EXERCISE 

1. Name ten weekly magazines, twenty monthlies, and two 
quarterlies. 

2. Classify these magazines under the headings: news and 
politics, general reading, literature, drama, humor, religion, science, 
women’s interests, political and social reform, technical journals 
(business, finance, medicine, law, education, agriculture). 

3. Read and criticize the composition comparing two maga¬ 
zines. Point out the best and worst about it. 

1. Points of comparison. 

2. Purpose of publication of the two magazines. 

3. Price, circulation, and class of readers appealed to. 

4. Illustrations. 

5. Advertisements. 

6. Articles. 

Motor Life and the Saturday Evening Post 

Motor Life and the Saturday Evening Post differ widely in purpose 
of publication, circulation, appeal, illustrations, advertisements, and 
articles. 

The purpose of Motor Life is to give accurate and interesting 
information about the automobile world; that of the Saturday 
Evening Post is to give good reading matter to the public at a small 
price. 

Hence we see that Motor Life at a cost of thirty-five cents per 
copy has a circulation among a motor-loving group of the public 
of about 15,000 copies per issue. The Post at a cost of five cents 


23G 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


per copy has a circulation among a large, motley, and cosmopolitan 
group of people of nearly 2,000,000. 

Motor Life is more profusely illustrated than the Post, and its 
art work and arrangement are superior to those of the Post. The 
cover, which is always in four colors, enhances the beauty of the 
magazine. The half-tones are thoughtfully placed throughout the 
whole, making it the more attractive. The Post’s illustrations are 
less plentiful and, printed on a cheaper paper, show up to less 
advantage. 

These two magazines have also their distinct advertising advan¬ 
tages. Because the Post reaches such a large and cosmopolitan 
public, advertisements placed in it are valuable to almost all adver¬ 
tisers. The cost of space, however, must also be considered — a 
back cover page in the Post averaging about $15,000 for one insertion. 
Motor Life, although it has a comparatively small circulation, is 
valuable as a medium to certain manufacturers. Since it reaches 
people interested in automobiles, manufacturers of motor cars and 
their accessories find this just the medium to satisfy their needs. 
A page here costs only about $1,000 per issue. 

The articles in Motor Life discuss topics of special interest to 
motorists: latest models of cars, automobile inventions, repairs, 
highways, driving, touring, legislation, insurance, and accessories. 
The Saturday Evening Post publishes many stories, a fair proportion 
of which deal with business or politics. A good serial story, More 
Precious than Rubies, recently published in the Post, illustrates the 
type which that magazine carries. It tells of happenings in America 
and France, and gives considerable information about the jewelry 
business. The Post has also instructive business articles by men 
who are prominent in the affairs of 'the country, and editorials on a 
wide range of topics. The editor, George H. Mortimer, a business 
man of the best American type, has instilled a high moral tone into 
this popular weekly. 

PRACTICE 

Write or speak on topics 1, 2, and 3, on 4 or 5, and on one other 
topic: 

1. Report on Collier’s Weekly, National Geographic, Outlook, 
Literary Digest, Independent, Review of Reviews, World’s Work, 
Yoidh’s Companion, St. Nicholas, Popidar Mechanics, Good House¬ 
keeping, American, Country Gentleman, Scientific American, Century, 
Scribner’s, Harper’s, Pictorial Review, Ladies’ Home Journal, House ~ 


PUBLICATION 


237 

and Garden, Atlantic Monthly, North American Review, or another 
worth-while magazine. Use these topics: purpose, class of 
readers appealed to, price, circulation^ illustrations, advertise¬ 
ments, articles. 

2. Comparison of two magazines. 

3. In a brief speech convince the pupils that they should sub¬ 
scribe for the Outlook or another magazine. 

4. Reproduction of a magazine article. 

5. What I learned from a magazine article. 

6. My favorite magazine. 

7. Educational value of magazines. 

8. Significance of names of magazines — World’s Work, Saturday 
Evening Post, Vogue, Popular Mechanics, Life, Review of Reviews, 
Independent, Outlook, Literary Digest, System. 


Advertising 

Classified advertising. A person who is looking for 
work naturally turns to the Help Wanted column in the 
newspaper. Hence a classified advertisement is just a 
concise statement of facts. 


LOST 

LOST — Boston bull, brindle, white 
markings, screw tail, bat ears; re¬ 
ward. Stanley, 501 West 178th St. 

FOR SALE 

SURROUNDED by handsome old trees 
and retired from the road on a hill, 
7-room cottage, overlooking beautiful 
little river; old well, broad stepping 
stones, quaint terraces, barn, chicken 
houses and garage, shrubbery and fruit; 
approach over good State road, four 
miles from village; $5,000; 70 minutes 
from New York; express service; 
country club, bathing beach. Mrs. R. 
W. Huller, Westport, Conn. Tel. 122G. 











238 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


ABSOLUTE sacrifice, furnishings private 
residence; mahogany baby grand, like 
new; floor lamps, library lamp, Oriental 
rugs large and small; mahogany gate- 
leg table, 6 Windsor chairs, dinner 
wagon, serving table, tilting table, easy 
chairs, mirrors, ivory bedroom set, 
bookcase and secretary, bed pillows, &c. 
72| Irving Place, near East 19th St. 

AUTOMOBILES 

STUDEBAIvER 1922, fully equipped, 
wire wheels, extra wheels, 6 cord 
tires, wind deflectors, rear stop signal, 
bumper, rear vision mirror, excellent 
mechanical condition; mileage 4,000; 
liberal time payments. Circle 0502. 


PRACTICE 

1. Your family or the family of a friend are moving to another 
city or town. Write advertisements to sell (1) the house, (2) the 
furnishings, (3) an automobile, a bicycle, or a radio set. 

2. Your cat or dog is lost. Write the advertisement for the 
Lost and Found column. Make it easy to identify your pet. 

3. Advertise a lost watch or other piece of jewelry. 

4. You have just completed your education. Write about 
yourself for the Situations Wanted column. 

5. Paste in your notebook six good classified advertisements. 
Why did you select each? 

Display advertising. The display advertisement must 
fii st attract attention, for money spent on advertising is 
wasted if nobody sees the advertisement. Headlines, 
illustrations, contrast, borders, and large type are devices 
for attracting attention. By suggesting or arguing, the 
advei tisement should also arouse desire and persuade 
to buy. 






PUBLICATION 


239 


EXERCISES 

1. Clip the ten best advertisements from a magazine or newspaper 
and paste them in your notebook or scrapbook. Justify your selection 
of each advertisement by answering these questions about it: 

(1) Does it mention cost? quality? a special reduction? benefit 
to the purchaser (health, economy of time, knowledge, pleasure, 
progress)? 

(2) Does it make use of colors? contrast? borders? large type? 

(3) Is it illustrated? Does the illustration suggest action? 
Is it artistic? Does it catch the attention? Does it attract atten¬ 
tion but not to the article advertised? 

(4) Is it cleverly phrased? Has it a striking headline, trade 
name, or trade-mark? 

(5) Does it argue or suggest? Is it conservative? Does it 
overstate? 

(6) Has it humorous touches? 

(7) Will you remember the advertisement and the article 
advertised? Why? 

2. Prepare a poster or a newspaper advertisement of a club meeting, 
game, debate, public lecture, play, school paper, concert, speaking 
contest, book, magazine, newspaper, fountain pen, baseball, or other 
article. 

3. You are on the advertising staff of the school paper and have 
sold a page advertisement to a local merchant. Prepare an advertise¬ 
ment for him. 

Proof Reading 

Almost every one at some time has printing done — the 
school paper, a program, a booklet, an article or story, 
or a window card. The manuscript sent to the printer 
is called copy. The proof, a first printing, is sent to the 
writer for corrections. 

In reading proof, the copyholder reads the manuscript, 
telling the punctuation, capitalization, and paragraphing; 
the proofreader places in the margin a set of symbols to 
indicate the corrections to be made. He also indicates 


240 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


where in the line the error is; for example, he draws a 
diagonal line through a wrong letter or punctuation mark 
and puts a caret where something is to be inserted. Suc¬ 
cessive proof marks are arranged in the order of the errors 
and separated by diagonal lines: O / tr / ^. Other 

directions to the printer are circled or marked To the 
printer. 



# 

s/vV 

or eq jf 


w.f. 

IT 

No H 

□ 

[ 

] 


X 


tr 

9 


or stet 

out — 
see copy 


Proofreader’s Marks 
Delete. Leave out. 

Leave a space. 

Equalize the spacing of the line. 

Don’t leave a space. 

Wrong font. Type of wrong size or style has been used. 
Begin a paragraph here. 

Don’t begin a paragraph. 

Indent. 

Move to the left. 

Move to the right. 

Raise. 

Lower. 

A broken or imperfect type. 

A lead spacer shows between words. 

Straighten the line. 

Straighten the margin. 

Transpose the letters or words as indicated. 

Turn letter. 

Don’t make the correction indicated. The proof is 
correct. 

Words have been omitted from the copy. 


PUBLICATION 


241 


Use capitals, 
or caps * 

Use small capitals. 

or s.c. 

l.c. Lower case. Use small letters. 
rom Use roman type, 
or ital Use italic type, 
or bold Use boldface type. 

A Insert. 

— Insert a hyphen. 

O Insert a period, 
v/ Insert an apostrophe. 

\/ v/ Insert quotation marks. 
center Place in the center of the page. 

Qy or ? These marks are used by the printer to ask the writer 
whether his date, fact, punctuation, or spelling is 
correct. 


Explanation of Marking 

A wrong letter in a word is noted by drawing a short line through 
it and writing the letter in the margin. So with whole words also, 
a line is drawn across the wrong word and the right one written in 
the margin opposite. 

When letters or words are to be taken out, draw a line through 
the superfluous word or letter and place the mark opposite in the 
margin. 

Where a word or letter has been left out, place a caret at the 
point of omission and write the word or letter in the margin. 

If omitted matter is too extensive to be copied on the page, 
write out — see copy in the margin, write out in the margin of the 
copy, and inclose the missing lines in brackets. 

For capitals, italics, and boldface draw a line through the 
word and a line or lines underneath the word — for capitals, 
three parallel lines; small capitals, two parallel lines; italics, 
a straight line; and boldface, a wavy line; and in the margin 
write caps, s.c., l.c., or bold. 



242 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


a / Though several differing opinions exist as to 
/the individual by vyfom the art of printing was 
first discovered; yet all authorities concur in 
admitting Peter Schoeffe r to be the person 
who invented cast metal types, having learned 
dj the art -ef of cutting the letters from the Gu- 
;/ tenbergy he is also supposed to have been 



$ the first whoengraved on copperplates. The 
following testimony is preseved in the family, 
V by 1 Jo. V Fred. ^Faustus, Eof fAscheffenburg: 
[~j Peter Schoeffer, of Gernsheim, perceiving 
\y his master Fausts design, and being himself 
^ C desirous | ardently] to improve the art, found 
out (by the good providence of God) the 
method of cutting ( incide n di ) the characters 
in a matrix , that the letters might easily be 
-»/ singly castj instead of bieng cu+. He pri- 
| vately cut matrices\ for the whole alphabet: 

Faust was so pleased with the contrivam 
-p^at he promised^Peter to give him hjg'only 
''daughter Christina in marriage,yapromise 


/-/ 
*/ 


cPf 


dPeP. 


Pi. 


which he soon after performed. 


A 


'But there were manyy<3ifficulties at first 

ere had been before 


**\ t A 
with these letters, as 



OTM 


, with wooden one^fthe metal being too soft 
to support thp^force of the im pression: but 
this defect was soon remedied, by mixing 

3 yT 2 I 

a sufoyCance with the me tal which sufficiently 
n\ h#u\e ned iit/ 

a?ic/ w/Cen Pte j/ioivec/ Pctd ?/iccdPei PPie 
PePPeid ccuP j/lom, Pu&je maPU'ced, 
Marked Proof 


c 


Pi, 




















PUBLICATION 


243 


Though several differing opinions exist as to 
the individual by whom the art of printing was 
first discovered; yet all authorities concur in 
admitting PETER SCHOEFFER to be the 
person who invented cast metal types , having 
learned the art of cutting the letters from the 
Gutenbergs: he is also supposed to have been 
the first who engraved on copper-plates. The 
following testimony is preserved in the family, 
by Jo. Fred. Faustus, of Ascheffenburg: 

‘ Peter Schoeffer, of Gernsheim, perceiv¬ 
ing his master Faust’s design, and being him¬ 
self ardently desirous to improve the art, found 
out (by the good providence of God) the 
method of cutting ( incidendi ) the characters in 
a matrix , that the letters might easily be singly 
cast, instead of being cut. He privately cut 
matrices for the whole alphabet: and when he 
showed his master the letters cast from these 
matrices, Faust was so pleased with the con¬ 
trivance, that he promised Peter to give him 
his only daughter Christina in marriage, a 
promise which he soon after performed. But 
there were as many difficulties at first with 
these letters, as there had been before with 
•wooden ones , the metal being too soft to sup¬ 
port the force of the impression : but this defect 
was soon remedied, by mixing the metal with 
a substance which sufficiently hardened it. * 
Corrected Proof 


244 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


When a space has been omitted between two words, place a 
caret where the separation ought to be and the mark opposite in 
the margin. 

When a line is unevenly spaced, place the mark between the 
words and also in the margin. 

When a new paragraph is required, a quadrangle is drawn in the 
margin, and a caret placed at the beginning of the sentence. 

Where two words are transposed, a line is drawn over .one 
word and below the other and the mark placed in the margin; 
but where several words require to be transposed, their right order 
is signified by a figure placed over each word, and the mark in the 
margin. 

Where words have been struck out that have afterward been 
approved of, draw a dotted line under them and write stet in the 
margin. 

Where a space sticks up between two words, draw a line through 
it, and place the mark in the margin. 

A turned letter is noted by drawing a line through it and writing 
the mark in the margin. 

Where a faulty letter appears, draw a line through it and place 
the mark in the margin. 

EXERCISE 

Correct the following proof. Make clear to the printer every change 
to he made. 

How straingely in ear nest you are!” exclaimed Phoebe, looking 
At him with surprise and perplexity; half alarmed and partly 
inclined to laugh. “You talk of the lunacy of the Pyncheon’s; 
Is it contageous?” I understand you! said the artist, colouring 
an dlaughing. “I beleive I am a little mad. this subject has taken 
hold of my mind with the greatest tenacity of clutch since I have 
lodged in yonder old gable. 

As one method of throwing it off I have ptu an in¬ 
cident of the Pyncheon famly histry, with which I happen to be 
acquanted, into the form of a legend, and mean to publish it 
in a magazine” Do you write for the magazines, Inquired Phoebe. 










CHAPTER XII 


DICTATION AND FRANKLIN’S METHOD 

How to Prepare a Dictation 

1. Read the selection through, getting the thought, 
noting the paragraph division, and deciding what the 
topic of each paragraph is. 

2. Notice the sentence division. Is any other division 
possible? 

3. Read the selection through again, looking at the 
spelling of each word. On a piece of paper jot down a 
word if you are not sure that you can spell it. Have 
somebody dictate this list to you, and then study the 
words that you misspelled. 

4. Give a reason for each punctuation mark and capital 
letter used. Is any other punctuation possible? 

5. Have some one dictate the entire assignment or 
part of it to you. Compare your copy with the original, 
noting errors and thinking in each case why your punctua¬ 
tion, spelling, capitalization, or sentence division is wrong. 
If there are many errors, again study and write from 
dictation. 


PRACTICE 

Prepare to write from dictation the selection assigned — one 
to five pages of this or another textbook. In class write the para¬ 
graph or paragraphs dictated, then exchange papers, and check 
every error: word omitted, word inserted, wrong word, abbre¬ 
viation, error in spelling, punctuation, capitalization, spacing, 
paragraphing, or syllabication of word divided at the end of a line. 
If another punctuation is correct, the teacher will indicate on the 

245 


246 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


blackboard what variations to accept. In totaling the mistakes, 
count a misspelling two and each other error one. 

Franklin’s Method 

Read again on page 52 Franklin’s explanation of how 
he learned to write. 

PRACTICE 

Read aloud a number of times the selection from the New York 
Times. Then jot down in a few words a hint of the thought of 
each sentence. Lay these hints aside for two or three days. In 
class, using the hints, write out the article fully. Then discover 
your faults by comparing your version with the original. 


Gay Scene at Parade Ground 

The side of the parade ground was liberally fringed with wives, 
daughters and friends of the officers, and the scene as the Prince 
and his staff took their stations in the center was gay. It was a 
brisk morning, and the gray-clad cadet columns debouched quickly 
from among the trees at the far side of the green campus, while the 
military band, in its contrastingly drab khaki uniforms, played a 
feverish quickstep. 

There were a few quick and sharp commands, and in a twinkling 
this aggregation of human clockwork had resolved itself into a line 
of battalions stretching immobile across the field. 

The band was hushed for a moment, and then it blared forth 
with “The Star-spangled Banner,” while that nerveless line came to 
“Present arms.” As if some one had pulled a lever, the reviewing 
party came to a salute, and the civilians bared their heads. An 
instant later, the notes of Britain’s national anthem succeeded the 
last sound wave of America’s, and once more the tribute to flag 
and country held every one motionless. 

Then the Prince, with General MacArthur, went stepping down 
the line, inspecting platoon after platoon. Buckles and buttons 
gleamed in the sunlight that had come to brighten the picture; the 
crossed white web belts that set off the cadets’ winter full dress 
were spotless; their rifles were equally speckless, and had Edward 
Albert been a young man far harder to please than he has shown 
himself to be, he could have found no fault. 


DICTATION AND FRANKLIN’S METHOD 247 


PRACTICE 

1. Write in the same way your version and then compare it 
with the originals on pages 43 and 30. 

2. Write at home your version of a selection read in class two 
or three times. The teacher will once read the selection so slowly 
that you can jot down a hint of the thought of each sentence. 


CHAPTER XIII 


READING, PARAPHRASING, RECITATION, AND 

DECLAMATION 

Importance. Dr. Henry van Dyke says that poetry is 
never fully appreciated until it is heard in the human 
voice. Longfellow says, “Of equal honor with him who 
writes a grand poem is he who reads it grandly ”; Tennyson, 
“A poem is only half a poem until it is well read”; 
Ruskin, “If I could have a son or daughter possessed 
with but one accomplishment in life, it should be that of 
good reading”; Carlyle, “We are all poets when we read 
a poem well.” 

Thought and feeling. Two rules cover the subject of 
reading: (1) Get the thought and feeling; (2) Give the 
thought and feeling. For unemotional matter the rules 
are: (1) Get the thought; (2) Give the thought. 

Thought getting. Mastering the thought of a selection 
is an intellectual task. Probably half the failures in school 
are due directly or indirectly to silent-reading deficiency. 
To get the thought of a sentence, paragraph, or stanza, 
first know what the whole selection or poem is about. 
Then find out what the words in the passage mean. 
Perhaps there is an allusion to history, literature, or 
mythology to be looked up or a figure of speech to be 
thought out. Finally, if the sentence is complicated or 
elliptical, a rough analysis may be necessary. Distinguish 
principal clauses, subordinate clauses, subjects and predi¬ 
cates, and modifying elements. Decide to what each 
modifier is attached. Occasionally the words and gram¬ 
mar are understood, and yet the idea is not clear because 

248 



READING, PARAPHRASING, RECITATION 249 

the subject discussed or the point of view is new to the 
reader. 

Paraphrasing is giving the meaning in other words, 
sometimes with greater fulness of " detail or illustration. 

How to Paraphrase 

1. Read and reread the original till you understand it 
perfectly. Use the dictionary. 

2. Make a list of the leading and subordinate thoughts. 

3. Using some individual words but no groups of words 
of the original, express freely in your own language the 
thought. 

4. Bring out as far as possible the full force of all 
figures and poetic language. 

5. If the original is condensed and elliptical, add 
details or illustrations to make the ideas clear. 

6. Be careful not to leave out any of the thoughts or 
pictures of the original. 

7. Be equally careful not to introduce any thought not 
expressed or implied in the original. 

8. Criticize your work —- 

(1) Have you omitted or misunderstood any idea? 

(2) Is all the language new? 

(3) Are your words, sentences, and paragraphs correct? 

9. After severely criticizing your work, rewrite it. 

Example — 

Not enjoyment, and not sorrow, 

Is our destined end or way; 

But to act that each tomorrow 
Find us farther than today. 

Art is long, and time is fleeting, 

And our hearts though stout and brave, 

Still, like muffled drums, are beating 
Funeral marches to the grave. 


250 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


Paraphrased. We are not placed in this world merely for the 
purpose of enjoying ourselves, or of dragging out our lives in sorrow, 
but we are sent here to improve the time in developing the capa¬ 
bilities that are given us. For this, ample opportunity is afforded 
in the vast fields of knowledge, research, and toil that lie spread 
out before us. Though the full investigation of these might employ 
ages, yet but a few short years are granted us. At times, indeed, 
we feel as if we might live forever, but we should not presume on 
life, for every throb of our hearts reminds us that we are rapidly 
drawing nearer the close of our allotted time. 


PRACTICE 

Paraphrase the following: 

1. Truth, crushed to death, shall rise again. 

2. Where your treasure is, there will your heart be also. 

3. It is more blessed to give than to receive. 

4. It is an ill wind that blows nobody good. 

5. The gale had sighed itself to rest. 

6. When faith is lost, when honor dies, the man is dead. 

7. He who would search for pearls must dive below. 

8. The evil that men do lives after them. 

9. They never pardon who have done the wrong. 

10. That life is long which answers life’s great end. 

11. The Court of Elizabeth was as immoral as that of her suc¬ 
cessor, but its immorality was shrouded by a veil of grace and 
chivalry. 

12. He was a most severe judge of himself as well as of others. 

13. One is never so near to another as when forced to be separated. 

14. The Child is father of the Man. 

15. “True ease in writing comes from art, not chance, 

As those move easiest who have learned to dance.” 

16. “The sound must be an echo of the sense. 

Soft is the strain when Zephyr gently blows, 

And the smooth stream in smoother numbers flows; 

But when loud surges lash the sounding shore, 

The hoarse, rough verse should like the torrent roar.” 

17. “When Ajax strives some rock’s vast weight to throw, 

The line too labors, and the words move slow.” 


READING, PARAPHRASING, RECITATION 

18. "O yet we trust that somehow good 
Will be the final goal of ill; 

That nothing walks with aimless feet, 

That not one life shall be destroyed, 

Or cast as rubbish to the void, 

When God hath made the pile complete.” 

19- “Thus ended he, and both 

Sat silent: for the maid was very loth 
do answer; feeling well that breathed words 
ould all be lost, unheard, and vain as swords 
Against the encased crocodile, or leaps 
Of grasshoppers against the sun.” 

20. He holds him with his skinny hand; 

“There was a ship,” quoth he. 

“Hold off! unhand me, gray-beard loon!” 

Eftsoons his hand dropt he. — Coleridge. 

21. And as a hare, whom hounds and horns pursue, 

Pants to the place from whence at first she flew, 

I still had hopes, my long vexations past, 

Here to return — and die at home at last. — Goldsmith. 

22. But knowledge to their eyes her ample page 

Rich with the spoils of time did ne’er unroll. — Gray. 

23. The applause of listening senates to command, 

The threats of pain and ruin to despise, 

To scatter plenty o’er a smiling land, 

And read their history in a nation’s eyes, 

Their lot forbade; nor circumscribed alone 

Their growing virtues, but their crimes confined.— Gray. 

24. For thus it chanced one morn when all the court, 
Green-suited, but with plumes that mocked the May 
Had been, their wont, a-maying and return’d, 

That Modred still in green, all ear and eye, 

Climbed to the top of the garden wall 
To spy some secret scandal if he might, 

And saw the Queen, who sat betwixt her best 
Enid, and lissome Vivien, of her Court 
The wiliest and the worst. — Tennyson . 


251 


252 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


25. We look before and after, 

And pine for what is not: 

Our sincerest laughter 

With some pain is fraught; 

Our sweetest songs are those that tell of saddest thought. 

— Shelley. 

26. The lunatic, the lover, and the poet 
Are of imagination all compact: 

One sees more devils than vast hell can hold, 

That is, the madman: the lover, all as frantic, 

Sees Helen’s beauty in a brow of Egj^pt: 

The poet’s eye, in a fine frenzy rolling, 

• Doth glance from heaven to earth, from earth to heaven; 

And as imagination bodies forth 
The forms of things unknown, the poet’s pen 
Turns them to shapes and gives to airy nothing 
A local habitation and a name. — Shakespeare. 

27. The World is too much with us; late and soon, 

Getting and spending, we lay waste our powers; 

Little we see in Nature that is ours; 

We have given our hearts away, a sordid boon! 

This Sea that bares her bosom to the moon, 

The winds that will be howling at all hours 
And are up-gather’d now like sleeping flowers, 

For this, for every thing, we are out of tune; 

It moves us not. — Great God! I’d rather be 
A Pagan suckled in a creed outworn, — 

So might I, standing on this pleasant lea, 

Have glimpses that would make me less forlorn; 

Have sight of Proteus rising from the sea; 

Or hear old Triton blow his wreathed horn. — Wordsworth. 

Condensation consists in expressing thought with 

greater brevity. 

Example. Though a man has all other perfections and wants 
discretion, he will be of no great consequence in the world; but 
if he has this single talent in perfection, and but a common share 
of others, he may do what he pleases in his particular station of life. 

Condensed. In our intercourse with the world, discretion is of 
more value than any other quality of mind. 


READING, PARAPHRASING, RECITATION 253 


PRACTICE 

Condense the following: 

1. Ihe period for a new election of a citizen, to administer the 
executive government of the United States, being not far distant, 
and the time actually arrived when your thoughts must be employed 
in designating the person who is to be clothed with that important 
trust, it appears to me proper, especially as it may conduce to a 
more distinct expression of the public voice, that I should now 
apprise you of the resolution I have formed to decline being con¬ 
sidered among the number of those out of whom a choice is to be 
made. — W ashington. 

2. In Flanders fields the poppies blow 
Between the crosses, row on row, 

That mark our place, and in the sky, 

The larks, still bravely singing, fly, 

Scarce heard amid the guns below. 

We are the dead; short days ago 
We lived, felt dawn, saw sunset glow, 

Loved and were loved, and now we lie 
In Flanders fields. 

Take up our quarrel with the foe! 

To you from failing hands we throw 
The torch; be yours to hold it high! 

If ye break faith with us who die, 

We shall not sleep, though poppies grow 
In Flanders fields. — McCrae. 

Thought giving. In the eighth chapter of Nehemiah the 
reading of the law is described as follows: “So they read 
in the book of the law distinctly, and gave the sense, and 
caused them to understand the reading.” To give the 
thought, it is necessary first to understand what you are 
reading; second, by distinct articulation, inflection, em¬ 
phasis, and time to give the sense; and finally to put into 
the reading enough intellectual vigor, vim, vivacity, and 
vitality to make people understand what you are reading. 
It is not enough to read so that people can understand; 
make them understand whether they will or not. 


254 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


PRACTICE 

Read the selections paraphrased. Make every idea clear to a 
rather stupid, slightly deaf pupil on the back seat. 

Getting and giving the feeling. Most literature appeals 
to the feeling also. It is easy to pretend to have the 
feeling of a selection, but it is also easy for an audience 
to distinguish sham joy, sorrow, remorse, or indignation 
from the genuine emotion. Audiences are not fooled by 
elocutionary tricks. To get and give the feeling of a 
selection, the reader must have imaginative sympathy. 
He must see the pictures vividly and must also connect 
himself with the happenings. 


PRACTICE 

Get and give the feeling of these passages, of In Flanders Fields 
on page 253, and of The World Is Too Much with Us on page 252. 
Think, imagine, feel. 

“ To this one standard make your just appeal; 

Here lies the golden secret — Learn to feel.” 

1. The year’s at the spring, 

And day’s at the morn; 

Morning’s at seven; 

The hill-side’s dew-pearled; 

The lark’s on the wing; 

The snail’s on the thorn; 

God’s in his heaven — 

All’s right with the world! — Browning. 

2. Break, break, break, 

On thy cold gray stones, O Sea! 

And I would that my tongue could utter 
The thoughts that arise in me. — Tennyson. 

3. From scenes like these, old 
Scotia’s grandeur springs, 

That makes her lov’d at home, rever’d abroad. — Burns. 


HEADING, PARAPHRASING, RECITATION 255 


4. Not a drum was heard, not a funeral note, 

As his corse to the rampart we hurried; 

Not a soldier discharged his farewell shot 

O’er the grave where our hero we byried. — Wolfe. 

5. Who is the man that, in addition to the disgraces and mis¬ 
chiefs of the war, has dared to authorize and associate to our arms 
the tomahawk and scalping-knife of the savage? — to call into 
civilized alliance the wild and inhuman inhabitant of the woods? —• 
to delegate to the merciless Indian the defense of disputed rights, 
and to wage the horrors of this barbarous war against our brethren? 
My lords, these enormities cry aloud for redress and punishment. — 
Chatham. 

6. It is a distressing and oppressive duty, gentlemen of the 
Congress, which I have performed in thus addressing you. There 
are, it may be, many months of fiery trial and sacrifice ahead of us. 
It is a fearful thing to lead this great, peaceful people into war, 
into the most terrible and disastrous of all wars, civilization itself 
seeming to be in the balance. But the right is more precious than 
peace, and we shall fight for the things which we have always carried 
nearest our hearts. — Wilson. 

Phrasing 

Meaning. A phrase presents a single or simple idea 
in a group of words so closely united in oral expression 
that they seem almost one long word. The phrase is 
important in reading because it is the unit of expression. 
We read and recite, not by syllables, words, or sentences, 
but by groups of related words called phrases. Much 
reading aloud is necessary to establish the habit of looking 
quickly ahead to get the meaning. 

Mistakes in phrasing. Phrasing depends upon the 
thought, not upon the part of speech, punctuation, or 
breath supply. A punctuation mark may fall within a 
phrase; the end of a phrase is often not marked by 
punctuation. Common mistakes are pausing according to 
punctuation instead of meaning and pausing to get breath 
rather than to group the ideas. Another fault is the fail¬ 
ure to think out and express with the voice the relationship 


250 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


between phrases. In such reading the individual units 
are not tied together in a larger whole. 

Examples . 1. The past | rises before me | like a dream. — Ingersoll. 

2. Thank God | every morning when you get up | that you have 
something to do that day | which must be done | whether you like 
it or not. | Being forced to work | and forced to do your best | will 
breed in you [ a hundred virtues | which the idle never know. —• 
Kingsley. 

Sometimes two different phrasings are equally good. 
In the above selection, for example, will breed in you a 
hundred virtues may be read as one phrase. Use shorter 
phrases in reading subject matter hard to understand and 
in emphasizing details. Use longer phrases for familiar 
subject matter and for giving a general impression. 

Emphasis 

Emphasis is any means by which a speaker calls par¬ 
ticular attention to important words or ideas. 

Selecting the emphatic word. There are four principles 
for selecting the emphatic word. Each of the principles 
covers the subject, but sometimes one of them is more 
easily applied than the others. 

1. The word which represents the new idea is emphatic. 
The newcomer is introduced. 

I have proved that compulsory arbitration is sound in principle 
and shall next show that it is practicable. 

2. Emphasize words necessary for the sense. If we had 
a shorthand language, we could omit most prepositions, 
conjunctions, pronouns, and interjections, many adjectives 
and adverbs, and some nouns and verbs without destroy¬ 
ing or distorting the main ideas to be expressed. In the 
question, “What profession do you intend to enter after 
you have completed your schooling?” profession — school¬ 
ing completed? carries the idea of the sentence. Hence 
the three words are emphatic. 


READING, PARAPHRASING, RECITATION 257 

3. Emphasize words which express or suggest a contrast. 
Read aloud six times the sentence: Did Father ride to 

the office today? In the readings emphasize in turn did, 
j Father, ride, to, office, and today. What is the contrast 
implied when the emphasis is placed on did? on Father? 
on ride? on to? on office? on today? 

4. Emphasize as in conversation. When we talk, we 
emphasize correctly without thinking about the placing 
of the emphasis. Hence know the passage; read as if 
you were talking; and the emphasis will be correct. 


Rules and Cautions 

I 

1. Do not emphasize a word repeated unless it is repeated 
for the sake of emphasis. 

2. Do not emphasize a modifier at the expense of the word 
modified. It is sometimes said that we should emphasize 
nouns and verbs, never adjectives and adverbs. This is 
an overstatement because emphasis depends upon the 
thought, not upon the part of speech, and occasionally 
an adverb expresses or implies a contrast. 

3. Do not speak as if all words were “created free and 
equal ” If a speaker tries to emphasize every word, he 
merely wears himself out and makes nothing emphatic. 
Subordinate articles, prepositions, conjunctions, and other 
unimportant words. 

4. In poetry avoid singsong — emphasis according to rhythm 
regardless of the sense. Select the emphatic word by the 
four principles of emphasis; underscore these words; make 
them emphatic. This is a sure cure for singsong. 

5. Do not end the sentence feebly. If the sentence is 
well constructed, it has an important idea at the end. 

6. Speak proper names with mechanical clearness. If 
the audience do not hear the name of a man mentioned, 
they will have little interest in what is said about him, 




258 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 




Making a word emphatic. The unusual attracts atten¬ 
tion. The six methods of making a word emphatic are 
six changes from the manner in which the unimportant 
words of the sentence are uttered. Two or three methods 
may be combined to give added emphasis to a word. 

1. Inflection — a downward stroke of the voice on the 
emphatic word. 

They are Yankees, they are Johnnies, 

They’re from North and South no more. 

( Yankees, Johnnies, North, and South are emphasized by the falling 
inflection.) 

2. A pause before or after the word to give weight to 
the word. 

(No more in the passage quoted is best emphasized by a pause 
before no.) 

3. Time on the word. 

Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this 
continent a new nation, conceived in liberty, and dedicated to the 
proposition that all men are created equal. (Give extra time to 
new nation, conceived, liberty, dedicated, all, equal.) 

4. Change of pitch. 

5. Change of volume. 

6. Change of quality. 

Young speakers often think loudness the only method 
of emphasis. On the contrary inflection is the most com¬ 
mon method; and pause, the most effective method. 

PRACTICE 

Indicate the phrasing, underscore the emphatic words, and 
read aloud: 

The quality of mercy is not strained. 

It droppeth as the gentle rain from heaven 

Upon the place beneath. It is twice blest; 

It blesseth him that gives and him that takes. 

’Tis mightiest in the mightiest; it becomes 

The throned monarch better than his crown. 





READING, PARAPHRASING, RECITATION 259 

His sceptre shows the force of temporal power, 

The attribute to awe and majesty, 

Wherein doth sit the dread and fear of kipgs; 

But mercy is above this sceptred sway; 

It is enthroned in the hearts of kings; 

It is an attribute of God Himself; 

And earthly power doth then show likest God’s 
When mercy seasons justice. Therefore, Jew, 

Though justice be thy plea, consider this, 

That, in the course of justice, none of us 
Should see salvation. We do pray for mercy; 

And that same prayer doth teach us all to render 
The deeds of mercy.— Shakespeare, Merchant of Venice. 

PRACTICE 

I 

Indicate the phrasing and underscore the emphatic words of 
the selections on pages 250 and 252 and of passages in the 
English book you are studying. Then read aloud. 

Inflection 

Inflection is a change of pitch during the utterance of 
the vowel of the accented syllable of a word. There are 
three inflections: rising / , falling \, and circumflex A V- 
Graceful curves in the voice are considered an index of 
culture and refinement. 

1. The falling inflection looks backward. It indicates 
completeness, certainty, conviction, definiteness, direct¬ 
ness, and importance. 

The mud and filth of the trenches developed latent heroism. 

2. The rising inflection looks forward. It indicates 
incompleteness, doubt, indefiniteness, triviality, obvious¬ 
ness, pleading, and negation followed by affirmation. 

Please let me go along. (Pleading.) 

It’s my impression that he was absent yesterday, but I am not 
sure. (Doubt.) 

It is not necessary to be rich to be happy. (Obviousness.) 
Coherence is important in debate; in fact a formless debate is a 
waste of time. (Rising inflection after debate to indicate incom¬ 
pleteness.) 




260 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


What our young men need most is not book-learning, instruction, 
or culture. It is a development of moral strength, a stiffening of 
the vertebrae, a cultivation of the habit of “being there.” (Rising 
inflection on culture because negation is followed by affirmation.) 

3. The circumflex inflection indicates a double action of 
the mind. In sarcasm the speaker’s words say just the 
opposite of wha,t he means. The falling glide of the 
circumflex may emphasize, or indicate that the thought is 
complete at the point; the rising glide, that a closely 
related idea is to follow. 

Friends, our task as Americans is to strive for social and industrial 
justice, achieved through the genuine rule of the people. (Circumflex 
on justice V.) 

4. Questions which begin with a verb and may be answered 
by yes or no require the rising inflection. 

Don’t you hear the bugles play? 

5. Questions which begin with an adverb or pronoun and 
cannot be answered by yes or no require the falling inflection. 

Why should there not be a patient confidence in the ultimate 
justice of the people? 

6. Names and titles in direct address are usually given 
with a slight rising inflection. A falling inflection suggests 
formal address; a rising, informal conversation. 

Fellow citizens, churches and schools are the foundation of civiliza¬ 
tion and democracy. 

7. In alternative questions and antithetical expressions the 
first is given with rising inflection; the second, with falling. 

Will the people insist on efficiency in public office or be contented 
with half-hearted service? 

Time. The time depends upon the largeness of the 
thought and the quality of the emotion. 

1. Quick time is used to express trivial, simple, paren¬ 
thetical, or unimportant ideas, joy, eagerness, animation, 
haste, excitement, intense anger, alarm, and indignation. 


READING, PARAPHRASING, RECITATION 261 


2. Moderate time is used for most discourse that is 
not especially emotional. 

3. Slow time is used to express involved or important 
ideas, earnestness, admiration, solemnity, pathos, sym¬ 
pathy, reverence, and sublimity. Slow time may result 
from slow word utterance or long and frequent pauses. 

Pitch. In general high pitch corresponds with quick 
time; medium pitch, with moderate time; and low pitch, 
with slow time. Exceptions are parenthetical expressions 
and ideas that are known to the audience or are of little 
importance. To subordinate such expressions, use lower 
pitch, more rapid rate, and less volume. 

Mrs. Cratchit made the gravy (ready beforehand in a little sauce¬ 
pan) hissing hot. — Dickens. 

A common fault is pitching the voice too high. To 
pitch the voice properly, begin as if you were just making 
the statement very clearly to a person not far from you. 

Quality. The resonance or tone color varies with the 
emotion expressed. The affected elocutionist tries to 
manufacture a voice to fit the emotion to be expressed; 
the sincere reader has in mind a vivid picture of the scene 
he is describing or in which he is acting and expresses 
only what he feels. 

Variety. Vary the rate, force, and pitch. A pleasing, 
straightforward speaker with worth-while ideas will drive 
people from the hall or lull them to sleep in their seats if 
he talks for half an hour without climaxes and other 
variations of the force, rate, and pitch. Real literature 
has great variety of thought and feeling. In reading, 
find this variety, and vary the rate, force, pitch, and 
quality to express it. Read subordinate ideas distinctly 
but quickly and quietly. Rise to the climaxes. 

The eyes. A reader may fail because he forgets the 
audience — forgets that his purpose is to instruct, con- 


262 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


vince, or entertain them. Hence it is a good practice to 
glance at the audience as frequently as possible to deliver 
the message directly to them and to find out whether they 
are keenly interested. 

How to Prepare a Reading, Declamation, or 

Recitation 

(Always learn to read a selection before memorizing. 
Otherwise the incorrect delivery of the lines will be fixed 
by repetition.) 

1. First read the selection through silently, picturing the 
scenes, action, speaker, and hearers. 

2. Think why the author wrote the selection, what were 
his point of view and purpose. A history of literature may 
tell you what you want to know about the author. 

3. Know the background. Read the entire speech, story, 
or book to get the spirit. 

4. Get ready to explain the precise meaning in the 
sentence of any word or allusion. Sometimes a history or 
mythology is necessary. 

5. Is there any word you can’t pronounce? Look it up. 

6. What is the central idea of the selection? What is 
the topic of each paragraph? 

7. What ideas or expressions need emphasis because 
they are new, contrasted, or most necessary to the sense? 

8. What is the dominant feeling of the selection? What 
changes in feeling are there? Why? 

9. Are there climaxes? Where? 

10. How rapidly will the audience be able to picture the 
story or grasp the facts? Don’t forget the slow thinker on 
the rear seat. 

11. What have you done, seen, heard, or read that makes 
the selection mean more to you? 

12. If the selection contains dialogue , picture the speakers 
in action and recall or find out hoiv such people talk . 


READING, PARAPHRASING, RECITATION 263 

13. Then read aloud to one person, real or imaginary. 
Think the ideas, see the pictures, feel the emotion, and 
speak directly to him. 

14. Standing and holding the book high enough, enlarge 
the delivery for the prospective audience without changing 
the quality of speech. 

15. Practice frequently, always thinking and feeling as 
you speak the words, and communicating your ideas and 
emotions to your hearers. Know the selection so well that 
you will read to the audience, not to the book. 

I 

How to Memorize 

1. Study the selection until you understand the ideas 
and see the pictures. If necessary, use a dictionary, 
history, mythology, encyclopedia, or history of literature to 
find out just what the selection means. Then read the 
selection aloud, getting and giving the thought and feeling. 

2. Jot down in order in the form of a rough outline 
the main ideas. Note how one idea follows another. 

3. Thoroughly memorize this thought-skeleton. The 
heart of good memorizing is learning the ideas before 
memorizing the words. 

4. Ask yourself questions about the selection and answer 
them in the words of the author. 

5. Note rhyme, rhythm, repetitions, contrasts, unusual 
expressions, vivid or important words, alliteration, etc. 

6. Close your book and repeat as much as you can 
recall of the entire selection. When necessary, open the 
book to find what comes next. Then run through the 
entire selection in the same way a number of times until 
you rarely need to use the book. As you recite, both 
think and feel the selection. 

7. For three or four successive days write, act, or speak 
the selection. Then at longer intervals, review it. 


CHAPTER XIV 


VERSE 

Poetry and prose. The five fundamentals of poetry 
are theme, imagination, emotion, wording, and sound. 
Poetry commonly has more beautiful or pleasing ideas or 
subject matter than prose, appeals to the imagination and 
feeling, is expressed in vivid and pleasing language, and 
has a more agreeable succession of sounds than prose. 
The poet always arranges his accented and unaccented 
syllables in a more or less regular way. 

Meter 

Meter is a regular recurrence of accented and unaccented 
syllables. 

A line of poetry is called a verse. The verse is made up 
of feet, groups of regularly recurring accented and unac¬ 
cented syllables. 

The feet most used are — 

1. Iambus — unaccented and accented. 

r f yj t w t 

A hedge | of lil | ies tall | and white. 

2. Trochee — accented and unaccented. 

t kj r kj t 

Teach me | half the | gladness. 

3. Anapest — two unaccented and an accented. 

^ f KJ r KJ f KJ t 

Not a word | to each oth | er; we kept | the great pace. 

4. Dactyl — an accented and two unaccented. Dactyl is 
from the Greek word meaning finger. How is this foot 
like a finger? 


264 


VERSE 


265 


* w yj t W r KJ KJ t w 

.Joy of the | desolate | light of the | straying. 

Feet used less frequently are: 

1. Pyrrhic — two unaccented. 

2. Spondee — two accented. 

3. Amphibrach — unaccented, accented, and unaccented. 
A verse is made up of one or more feet: 

Iambic monometer (one iambic foot). 

Farewell. 

Iambic dimeter (two iambic feet). 

kj r kj , t 
The soul | of you. 

Iambic trimeter (three iambic feet). 

r w t yj r 

The vil | lage smith | y stands. 

Iambic tetrameter (four iambic feet). 

KJ t w t , W t W t 

To find | the se j cret path | that goes. 

Iambic pentameter (five iambic feet). 

r r r kj t w t 

Why, friends, | you go I to do | you know | not what. 

Iambic hexameter (six iambic feet). 

Our sweet [ est songs ] are those [ that tell | of sad | dest thought. 
Iambic heptameter (seven iambic feet). 

w / w r w t kj t \j t \j t 

Yon is | land strength | is guard | ed well, | say, broth | ers will | 
w j 
you in? 

Trochaic Verse 
Trochaic dimeter — 

t w t y~> 

Rich the | treasure. 

Trochaic trimeter — 

t \j t w ( r w 
Go where | glory | waits thee. 

Trochaic tetrameter — 

r kj t kj t t w 

In her | ear he | whispers | gently. 



266 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


Trochaic odometer — 


t t W f yj t yj f W / 

And the | silken | sad un | certain | rustling | of 


yj 


curtain. 


Anapestic Verse 


Anapestic trimeter — 


yj KJ t KJ t W yj t 

Of the beau | tiful An | nabel Lee. 


yj t yj 
each ] purple | 


Anapestic tetrameter — 

yj t yj yj r yj yj r yj yj f 
Have wak | ened thy fond | est, thy love | liest thrill. 


Dactylic Verse 

Dactylic monometer — 

/ \jyj 

Tenderly. 

Dactylic dimeter — 

r yj yj r yj yj 

One more un | fortunate. 

Dactylic hexameter — 

r yj yj r yj yj t yj yj r yj yj t yj yj 

This is the | forest pri | meval the | murmuring | pines and the | 

t yj 

hemlocks. 

Sometimes two scansions are correct. For example, the 
last two illustrations of trochaic verse may be scanned: 

yj yj t yj t yj t yj 
In her | ear he | whispers | gently. 

yj yj t yj t yj t w r yj yj yj t yj 

And the | silken | sad un | certain | rustling | of each | purple ] 

t yj 
curtain. 

Variations. A verse lacking the last foot is called 

catalectic. , w w , 

Hate, and | pride, and | fear. 

A verse with an added syllable is called hypermetrical. 
If the extra syllable is at the end of the line the verse is 
hyper catalectic. 

yj r yj r yj r yj r yj t yj 

You greet | with pres | ent grace | and great | predic | tion. 


VERSE 


267 


These and similar variations in the metrical scheme 
prevent monotony and make the Verse more musical. 

Feet with the accent on the first or last syllable are 
interchanged freely. The substitution of a foot with the 
accent on the first syllable for one with the accent on the 
last syllable or vice versa is commonly restricted to the 
first foot of the line or the foot after a pause. 

An anapest for an iambus — 

w f ^ w t kj t \j 

I stood | on the bridge | at mid | night. 

A dactyl for a trochee — 

I 

r KJ t KJ f f 

Many a | gallant | gay do | mestic. 

An iambus for an anapest — 

w / y> kj t w w t 

King Phil | ip had vaunt | ed his claims. 

A trochee for an iambus — 

KJ t KJ t t KJ KJ t KJ t 

A gol | den clasp, | clasping | a shred | of gold. 

Not infrequently the unaccented syllable or syllables 
are omitted, and the omission is indicated by a pause. 

t W t KJ t 

Break, | break, | break 

w kj t \j t 'u r 

On thy cold | gray stones, | O sea. 

t kj yy f w w 

Rashly im | portunate, 

Gone to her | death. 

EXERCISE 

Scan the following, and after each line or selection name the 
verse; as, 

t kj r w r w f 

When shall | we three | meet a | gain? (Trochaic tetrameter cata- 
lectic.) 

To scan poetry, first mark the accents that are known and 
thus find out what the prevailing foot is. 


268 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


1. It is an ancient Mariner, 

And he stoppeth one of three. 

“ By thy long gray beard and glittering eye, 

Now wherefore stopp’st thou me?” — Coleridge. 

2. And what is so rare as a day in June? 

Then, if ever, come perfect days; 

Then Heaven tries earth if it be in tune, 

And over it softly her warm ear lays. — Lowell. 

3. Then the little Hiawatha 

Learned of every bird its language. — Longfellow. 

4. The Assyrian came down like the wolf on the fold. — Byron. 

5. Grow old along with me! 

The best is yet to be, 

The last of life, for which the first was made. — Browning. 

6. Once upon a midnight dreary, while I pondered, weak and 

weary, 

Over many a quaint and curious volume of forgotten lore. — 
Poe. 

7. It is not meet you know how Caesar loved you. — Shakespeare. 

8. Teach him that states of native strength possessed, 

Though very poor, may still be very blessed. — Goldsmith. 

9. God’s in his heaven — 

All’s right with the world! — Browning. 

10. Blessings on thee, little man, 

Barefoot boy, with cheek of tan! — Whittier. 

11. I turned in my saddle and made the girth tight, 

Then shortened each stirrup, and set the pique right. — 
Browning. 

12. The quality of mercy is not strained. — Shakespeare. 

13. Haste thee, nymph, and bring with thee 
Jest and youthful jollity. — Milton. 

14. Live pure, speak true, right wrong, follow the king. — 

Tennyson. 

15. If a hart do lack a hind, 

Let him seek out Rosalind. — Shakespeare. 

16. Chanting of labor and craft, and of wealth in the pot and the 

garner. — Kingsley. 

17. Have you read in the Talmud of old, 

In the Legends the Rabbins have told. — Longfellow. 


VERSE 


2G9 


18. Let me have men about me that are fat. — Shakespeare. 

19. Cannon in front of them " 

Volley’d and thunder’d. — Tennyson. 

20. The curfew tolls the knell of parting day. — Gray. 

21. Build me straight, O worthy Master! — Longfellow. 


Rhyme 

Rhyme is a correspondence of sound. Perfect rhyme 
has — 

1. The vowel sounds the same. 

2. The consonants after the vowels similar in sound. 

3. The consonants before the vowels different in sound. 

4. The rhyming syllables similarly accented. 

Thus song, thong; laid, shade; light , right rhyme perfectly, 
but come, home is an imperfect rhyme. 

Single (or masculine) rhyme consists of one rhyming 
syllable; as, sound, found; double (or feminine) rhyme , 
of two; as, shaken, waken; triple rhyme, of three; as, 
tenderly, slenderly. In double or triple rhyme the rhyming 
syllables may be in two words. 

Blank verse is verse without rhyme. Shakespeare wrote 
usually in unrhymed iambic pentameter. 

Alliteration is the repetition of a sound at the beginning 
of words; as, 

The fair breeze blew, the white foam flew, 

The furrow followed free. 

Bareheaded, breathless, and besprent with mire. 


Onomatopoeia. 

the sense; as, 


Onomatopoeia is suiting the sound to 
Bees buzz. 


I heard the ripple washing in the reeds, 
And the wild water lapping on the crag. 


270 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


Couplet. A couplet contains two rhyming lines 

Blessings on thee, little man, 

Barefoot boy, with cheek of tan! 

Stanza. A stanza is a regular combination of three or 
more verses. 

A triplet contains three lines. 

The wrinkled sea beneath him crawls; 

He watches from his mountain walls, 

And like a thunderbolt he falls. 

A quatrain is a stanza of four verses. 

1 

W t KJ I W / W t 

The Bride | groom’s doors | are o | pened wide, 

w t w r w t 

And I | am next | of kin) 

w / w t w / y / 

The guests [ are met, | the feast | is set: 

w / w / w / 

May’st hear | the mer [ ry din. 

This quatrain, made up of iambic tetrameter alternating 
with iambic trimeter, is the typical ballad stanza. The 
second and fourth lines rhyme. 

2 

Full many a gem of purest ray serene , 

The dark unfathomed caves of ocean bear; 

Full many a flower is born to blush unseen, 

And waste its sweetness on the desert air. 

3 

A gown made of the finest wool 
Which from our pretty lambs we pull; 

Fair-lined slippers for the cold, 

With buckles of the purest gold. 

4 

Tonight the winds begin to rise 
And roar from yonder dropping day; 

The last red leaf is whirl’d away, 

The rooks are blown about the skies. 


VERSE 271 

Notice the quatrain rhyme schemes illustrated: (1) — a 
— a; (2) abab ; (3) aabb; (4) abba.' 

Stanzas of five, six, seven, eight, and nine lines are 
common. The Spenserian stanza consists of nine lines; 
the first eight are iambic pentameters, and the ninth is 
an iambic hexameter. The rhyme scheme is ababbcbcc. 
Spenser’s Faerie Queene and Byron’s Childe Harold are 
written in this stanza. 

The sonnet is a poem of fourteen iambic pentameter 
lines. The Petrarchan sonnet is made up of an eight-line 
octave rhyming abba abba and a six-line sestet rhyming 
cdecde or cdcdcd. The octave usually presents an idea, 
story, or picture; the sestet, a reflection or conclusion. 
The Shakespearean sonnet is rhymed abab cdcd efef gg. 
Wordsworth’s The World Is Too Much with Us on page 
252 is a Petrarchan sonnet. 

PRACTICE 

You will enrich your vocabulary and enjoy poetry more if you 
try your hand at writing verse — don’t call your first attempts 
poems. After studying again the ballad measure, read the geometry 
ballad and then write about a subject, a person, or a school happen¬ 
ing, or tell a biblical or other story in ballad form. Make verses 
two and four rhyme. Fit your accented and unaccented syllables 
into this scheme: 

kj t | ^ r | ^ t | w t 

KJ / | U t | w / | 

\J / | u t | w t | w / 

t | u / I w t 


The Horrors of Geometry 

I hate to do geometry; 

It seems so awful queer; 

But when it comes to algebra, 

I have no dreadful fear. 


272 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


The propositions are so hard; 

I study half the night; 

And yet my efforts are in vain; 

I still am in a plight. 

I dream of angles A and B; 

They never let me rest; 

And every month my blood runs cold 
When teacher says, “A test.” 

Oh, who the deuce invented it? 

I’m sure he must be queer. 

Had I the chance to meet him now, 
I’d run away in fear. 


PRACTICE 

Study blank verse, another quatrain, or any other verse form 
until you understand its structure. Then write on a topic of your 
own choice — mountain, forest, flowing river, purling brook, 
heaving ocean, foaming cataract, bounding stag, singing bird, 
raging tempest, roaring waterfall, heroic deeds, great man, or 
school. 

Blank Verse 

Along the sandy beach the roaring sea 
Is tossing seaweed green and driftwood up. 

Quatrains (iambic tetrameter rhyming aabb ) 

1 

Drooping its head in a shady bower 
I saw a modest, tiny flower, 

Far apart from all the rest, 

A lonely blossom, hid in a nest. 

2 

Macaulay said that any dunce 

Could sit and write mere rhyme at once. 

Well, I the chief of fools must be; 

To write such verse is not in me. 


PART II — THE SENTENCE AND THE WORD 


CHAPTER XV 

THE PARTS OF THE SENTENCE 

A sentence is a word-group making complete sense. 

The subject names the person or thing spoken of. 

The predicate says something about the subject. 

A modifier changes the meaning of a word or words. 
White house differs in meaning from house; run slowly, 
from run. 

An adjective modifies a noun or pronoun; as, that 
book, ten men. 

An adverb modifies a verb, an adjective, or another 
adverb; as, 

He ran rapidly. It is too warm. She spoke very softly. 

A substantive is a noun or pronoun or another word or 
word-group used like a noun; as, 

The rich like to ride. 

A phrase is a group of related words without subject and 
predicate. Phrases may be used as nouns, adjectives, or 
adverbs; as, 

In his introduction (adverbial) Mr. Marshall of Chicago (adjective) 
tried to arouse interest (noun). 

A clause is a group of words containing a subject and 
a predicate; as, 

Although this novel was published in England many years ago 
(subordinate clause), it has only recently appeared in America (prin¬ 
cipal clause). 


273 


274 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


A simple sentence has one subject and one predicate, 
either or both of which may be compound; as, 

Washington and Roosevelt were warriors and statesmen. 

A subordinate clause is used like a noun, an adjective, 
or an adverb; as, 

(Noun) That he will succeed is certain. 

(Adjective) His book is one of the best advertisements that the 
study of history has received in our age. 

(Adverbial) If your only word for any agreeable thing from a new 
pair of earmuffs to the Woolworth Building is swell , you advertise 
every hour your linguistic bankruptcy. 

All other clauses are principal clauses. 

A compound sentence has two or more principal clauses. 

1. A coordinate conjunction connects elements of equal 
rank. The chief coordinate conjunctions used to connect 
clauses are and, but, or, nor, yet, still, then, thus, so, for, 
also, likewise, therefore, hence, nevertheless, otherwise, not¬ 
withstanding, however, moreover. 

Case Uses 
N ominative 

1. The subject names that of which something is 
said; as, 

John shot a deer. 

2. The predicate nominative completes the verb and 

refers to the subject; as, 

He is an Englishman. He seems to be an Englishman. 

3. The nominative of address names the person spoken 
to; as, 

John, come here. 

4. The nominative of exclamation is a substantive used 

to show special emotion; as, 

O the scoundrel! 


THE PARTS OF THE SENTENCE 


275 


5. The nominative absolute, with a participle expressed 
or understood, has the force of an adverbial modifier; as, 

His work finished, he hurried home. 

6. An appositive is attached to a substantive and names 
the same person or thing; as, 

Mr. Horton, the butcher , is here. 

Objective (or dative and accusative) 

1. The direct object names the receiver or product of 
the action; as, 

John shot a deer. (The direct object answers the question “Shot 
what?” or “Shot whom?” Shot is a transitive verb because it has 
an object. It is in the active voice because the subject names the 
doer of the act.) 

2. The indirect object tells toward whom or toward 
what thing the action is directed; as, 

Give me a dime. (Inserting to before an indirect object does 
not change the sense.) 

3. Verbs of asking take two direct objects, the name of 
the person and the name of the thing (called the secondary 
object); as, 

Ask Ruth a question. 

4. A verb which takes an indirect or secondary object 
in the active voice may in the passive voice retain a direct 
object (called the retained object); as, 

I was given a dime. 

5. A verb regularly intransitive may take a cognate 
object, an object similar in meaning to the verb; as, 

He ran a race. 

6. The predicate objective (or adjunct accusative) 
completes the verb and refers to the direct object; as, 

We elected him president. (Inserting to be before the predicate 
objective does not, as a rule, change the sense.) 


276 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 

7. An adverbial objective is a noun used like an 
adverb; as, 

He is a year too young. ( Fear answers the question “How 
much?”) 

8. After verbs of making, telling, letting, wishing, 
commanding, believing, and the like, the infinitive has a 
subject; as, 

We believed him to be guilty. 

. The predicate of an infinitive is used after a linking 
verb to refer to the subject of the infinitive; as, 

We believed it to be him. 

10. The object of a preposition is connected by a 
preposition with another word; as, 

He went to Detroit. {To connects went and Detroit.) 

11. An appositive may be attached to a substantive in 
the objective case; as, 

I saw Mr. Horton, the butcher. 

Possessive (or genitive) 

A noun or pronoun in the possessive case modifies the 
substantive to which it is attached; as, 

Mr. Hamlin's factory is closed. 


EXERCISE 1 

Point out the subject and verb of each clause and all coordinate 
conjunctions: 

1. There was a big sign back of the ticket taker, and there 
was some difficulty in getting the tickets. {There is an expletive.) 

2. In one corner stood a marble woman and a block of granite. 

Point out 'predicate nominatives: 

3. Such public expression of divergent opinions is a whole¬ 
some sign. 




THE PARTS OF THE SENTENCE 277 

4. To everybody he seemed a man of rare tact and under¬ 
standing. 

Point out nominatives of address: 

5. Paul, what is your favorite fishing stream? 

6. That’s your work, Marion. 

Pick out nominative absolutes: 

7. The whole delegation, the President included, lost prestige 
and influence with the foreign delegates by this lack of program. 

8. My father having died, life looked different to me. 

Pick out appositives: 

9. This was John W. Weeks, Secretary of War, a graduate of 
the United States Naval Academy and later a member of its 
Board of Visitors. 

10. I shall discuss A. A. Milne’s satiric comedy, The Truth 
about Blayds. 

Pick oui direct objects: 

11. Pain elicits fortitude and endurance; difficulty, persever¬ 
ance; poverty, industry and ingenuity; danger, courage. 

12. It not only whitens the teeth but also wards off pyorrhea by 
keeping the gums in perfect health. 

Point out indirect objects: 

13. Here advice was given me by a clever, white-haired, young¬ 
eyed woman. 

14. Will you please send me the vacuum cleaner before May 10. 

Point out retained objects: 

15. I was given advice by a little shriveled-up man with a 
thin nose and a squeaky voice. 

16. After dinner I was told the answer to the conundrum. 

Point out predicate objectives: 

17. I consider him the best player on the team. 

18. In his refutation Thompson called his opponent a quibbler. 


278 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


Point out adverbial objectives: 

19. One day the following winter an invitation came to lunch 
with the President at the White House. 

20. The loghouse was completed by a paling six feet high. 

Point out objects of prepositions: 

21. The directing genius of the State Department sits at a large 
flat desk in a large room on the south side of the second floor of 
the granite pile known as the State, War, and Navy Building. 

22. In a long ramble of the kind, on a fine autumnal day, Rip 
had unconsciously scrambled to one of the highest parts of the 
Kaatskill mountains. 

Analysis and Syntax 

To give the syntax is to show the relation of a word, 
phrase, or clause to the rest of the sentence. 

Analysis is showing the relationship of the parts of the 
sentence to one another. 

Example. The toothless jaws taper to a rounded point. 

This is a simple declarative sentence. The toothless jaws is the 
complete subject; taper to a rounded point is the complete predicate. 
The noun jaws is the simple subject; and the verb taper is the 
simple predicate. Jaws is modified by the adjectives the and 
toothless; taper is modified by the adverbial prepositional phrase 
to a rounded point , of which to is the preposition; point, the object; 
and a and rounded, adjectives modifying point. 

Diagraming is shorthand analysis. 

Model for Written Syntax 

Father told me that he had waited patiently for the opportunity 
which came last week. 


Element 

Name 

Construction or use 

RELATION 

Father 

noun 

subject 

of told 

told 

verb 

predicate 

of Father 

me 

pronoun 

indirect object, 
modifier 

of told 


THE PARTS OF THE SENTENCE 


279 


that 

subordinate 

introduces clause 

that he had waited 


conjunction 

// 

patiently for the 
opportunity 

he 

pronoun 

subject 

of had waited 

had waited 

verb 

predicate 

of he 

'patiently 

adverb 

modifier 

of had waited 

for 

preposition 

shows relation 

between had waited 
and opportunity 

the 

adjective 

modifier 

of opportunity 

opportunity 

noun 

object 

of for 

which 

relative 

pronoun 

subject 

and refers to ante¬ 
cedent 

of came 

opportunity 

came 

verb 

predicate 

of which 

last 

adjective 

• 

modifier 

of week 

week 

noun 

adverbial objective, 
modifier 

of came 

for the 
opportunity 

prepositional 

phrase 

modifier 

of had waited 

that he 
had waited 
patiently 
for the 
opportunity 

subordinate 
noun clause 

object 

of told 

which came 
last week 

subordinate 

adjective 

clause 

modifier 

of opportunity 


280 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


EXERCISE 2 

Give the syntax of all nouns, pronouns, verbs, and prepositions: 

1. Yet there was very little ease in that factory and office. 

2. No one can disgrace us but ourselves. 

3. It is never too late for one to make a fresh start in life. 

4. Whom did you wish to see? 

5. Nobody says Walton; it would mean nothing. 

6. From an opening between the trees he could overlook all 
the lower country for many a mile of rich woodland. 

7. I can run a hundred yards in twelve seconds. 

8. Einstein has given the world a new explanation of time 
and space. 

9. The world’s largest inn, the Hotel Pennsylvania, is in New 
York City. 

10. The entire garden having been hoed, Willis decided to go 
to the ball game. 

11. In many respects his attempt was a failure. 

12. Try to get an evening paper. 

13. We were given an opportunity to choose a captain and 
elected Arnold leader of the team. 

EXERCISE 3 

Give the syntax of all adjectives and adverbs: 

1. Business and industry, struggling painfully out of the Slough 
of Despond, are vitally concerned in the question of wise tariff 
revision. 

2. On the other side he looked down into a deep mountain glen, 
wild, lonely, and shagged, the bottom filled with fragments from 
the impending cliffs, and scarcely lighted by the reflected rays of 
the setting sun. 

3. I want the lightest and most delicate of tackle for all trout 
fishing, having reached the place where I never employ anything 
heavier than a three-ounce delicate cementing of split-bamboo. 

4. It is urgent for all mankind to know that it is really neces¬ 
sary to live for others. 

5. My own initial experience with Roosevelt is far less dramatic. 

6. In essential qualities young folk of course are the same 
everywhere. 


THE PARTS OF THE SENTENCE 281 

A complex sentence consists of one principal clause and 
one or more subordinate clauses. " 

Subordinate clauses are of three kinds: (1) noun (or 
substantive), (2) adjective, and (3) adverbial. 

A noun clause may be — 

1. The subject of a verb; as, 

That one should be shut out from all society is unendurable. 

2. The direct object of a verb; as, 

I know not what can be done. 

3. The object of a preposition; as, 

I will give the estate to whoever deserves it. 

4. The predicate nominative; as, 

The objection is that the price is too high. 

5. An appositive; as, 

Many people are of the opinion that whatever is, is best. 

6. An adverbial objective; as, 

We investigate until we are positive only that we are positive 
of nothing. 

7. The retained object; as, 

I was told that a conference had been held. 

An adjective clause has the value of an adjective; 
hence it is always attached to a substantive. 

1. An adjective clause may be attached to the word it 
modifies by — 

(1) A relative pronoun; as, 

Fortunate is he who finds a merciful judge. 

The simple relative pronouns are who, which, what, and 
that, and rarely as and but. 

(2) A subordinate conjunction (or relative adverb); as, 
They found the place where the treasure had been buried. 

2. The connecting word may be omitted; as, 

They aroused me at the hour (at which ) I desired to be called. 


282 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


3. The antecedent and the connecting relative may be 
contained in the same word; as, 

The actual fact differed materially from what was first reported. 

An adverbial clause modifies a verb, an adjective, or an 
adverb; as, 

War is an evil because it produces human misery. 

A subordinate conjunction connects a subordinate clause 
with the clause to which it is attached. Frequently used 
subordinate conjunctions are although, as, because, if, lest , 
since, than, that, unless, whereas, whether, when, while, 
after, before, where. 

A compound-complex sentence has two or more principal 

clauses and one or more subordinate clauses; as, 

Mr. William H. Taft has played many parts in his sixty-five 
years of life, but it was not until his visit to England that he occupied 
the role for which heaven had ideally fitted him. 


EXERCISE 4 

Give the syntax of noun clauses, conjunctions, and pronouns: 

1. The last three classes are what might be called patricians. 

2. A clever man once said that Denmark, like ancient Gaul, is 
divided into three parts — butter, bacon, and eggs. 

3. Some found time to speculate concerning what the world 
would look like after the war. 

4. Whatever is worth doing at all is worth doing well. 

5. It requires a good, strong man to say, “I was mistaken, 
and am sorry.” 

6. A fundamental question of policy is, for instance, whether 
preparedness in itself is good or evil. 

7. Some boys have no reverence for what is holy and no pity 
for what is sad. 

8. Whether this was intentional or involuntary I do not know. 

9. He expressed the opinion that Lincoln is our greatest 
American. 


THE PARTS OF THE SENTENCE 283 

EXERCISE 5 

(in t the syntax of adjective clauses, conjunctions, and pvonouns: 

1. He that is good at making excuses is seldom good for any¬ 
thing else. 

2. We prepare ourselves for sudden deeds by the reiterated 
choice of good or evil which determines character. 

3. It was a more famous road, however, over which Persia’s 
neutrality became a mere expression. 

4. All they needed was a good picket and enough food. 

5. Not far from the place where they lay, there was a castle 
called Doubting Castle, whose owner was Giant Despair. 


EXERCISE 6 

Give the syntax of adverbial clauses, conjunctions, and pronouns: 

1. The chains of habit are generally too small to be felt till 
they are too strong to be broken. 

2. Boldwood had no more skill in finesse than a battering ram. 

3. An ass may bray a good while before he shakes the stars 
down. 

4. A man’s worst difficulties begin when he is able to do as he 
likes. 

5. He listened with greater attention to a speaker than did any 
other man present, and whenever opportunity offered he smiled 
or told an anecdote. 

6. After I had had a few conversations with business men and 
employers, I concealed my college diploma as though it were two 
bombs. 


EXERCISE 7 

Diagram or analyze these sentences, or give the syntax of all clauses, 
conjunctions, pronouns, and italicized words. 

1. When industrial democracy penetrates the Chicago 
“Jungle,” where the business of killing and preparing and pack¬ 
ing meat is centered, it seems to the daily press that the movement 
for better and closer relations between capital and labor takes 
a long stride forward. 


284 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


2. If Chicago University is a fair sample of our American 
colleges, we may solace ourselves in our somewhat pessimistic 
moments by the reflection that, after all, our colleges show a 
higher percentage of religious interest than the community as a 
whole. 

3. Though it may shock the democratic readers of St. Nicholas, 
I must say it is difficult to study the characteristics of the young 
folk of these three countries without taking into consideration the 
classes to which they belong. 

4. This was how it was: a spring of clear water rose almost at 
the top of the knoll. 

5. I well remember the pleasure with which, as a young man, 
I heard my venerable professor of rhetoric say that he supposed 
there was no work known to man more difficult than writing. 

6. Your slogan should be, “Make every job a masterpiece!” 

7. As growing population in the colonies is evidently one 
cause of their resistance, it was last session mentioned in both 
Houses, by men of weight, and received without applause, that, 
in order to check this evil, it would be proper for the crown to 
make no further grants of land. 

8. To the question how shall we improve our English style, 
the first answer is, read the best books and magazines. 

9. Whoever has a real purpose is young till he dies. 

10. Those who trust in luck don’t keep their customers. 

11. “Surely people don’t think that because we have spent 
four years training our minds and earning our degrees we are 
therefore conquerors of the world, in our own estimation,” 

I said. 

12. The language in which he told these stories shocked our 
plain people almost as much as the crimes that he described. 

13. The State Bank has issued one and a quarter billion dollars 
worth of paper currency, to redeem which it holds a gold reserve 
of only five per cent. 

14. Before my escape I was told a joke so old that no self- 
respecting person could laugh at it. 

15. Life-insurance experts now shake their heads at excess of 
fat, and consider that it renders the possessor liable to all sorts 
of ills. 


THE PARTS OF THE SENTENCE 285 

A participle is a form of the verb that is used as an 
adjective. 

A gerund is a verb form in -ing that is used as a noun. 

An infinitive is a verb form with to used as a noun, 
adjective, or adverb. To is omitted after bid, dare, need , 
see, make, let, hear , and sometimes after a few other verbs. 


Syntax Model 

Wishing to see his diving from a high springboard, we hurried 
to the pool. 


Element 

Name Construction or use 

Relation 

wishing 

participle 

modifier 

of we 

to see 

infinitive 

object 

of wishing 

diving 

gerund 

object 

of to see 

A verbal 

noun has the form 

of a gerund but 

does not 


express action or any other verbal idea; as, 

His running has made him famous. 

A verbal adjective, which has the form of a participle, 
is always placed before a noun; as, 

Running water purifies itself. 


EXERCISE 8 

Give the syntax of the 'participles: 

1. Realism carried to extreme proves an Aaron’s rod, which, 
having turned into a serpent, eats up the other serpents. 

2. When a servant is called before his master, he does not come 
with an expectation to hear himself rated for some trivial fault, 
threatened to be stripped, or used with any other unbecoming 
language. 

3. Panting and fatigued, he threw himself, late in the after- 


286 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


noon, on a green knoll covered with mountain herbage, that 
crowned the brow of a precipice. 

4. He saw at a distance the lordly Hudson, far, far below him, 
moving on its silent but majestic course, with the reflection of a 
purple cloud, or the sail of a lagging bark, here and there sleeping 
on its glassy bosom, and at last losing itself in the blue highlands. 

5. Well, on the knoll, and enclosing the spring, they had 
clapped a stout log-house, fit to hold two score of people on a 
pinch, and loopholed for musketry on every side. 


EXERCISE 9 

Give the syntax of the gerunds: 

1. Our greatest glory consists, not in never falling, but in rising 
every time we fall. 

2. Thus the United States was forced into the position of 
following instead of leading in the drafting of the terms formu¬ 
lated in the Council of Four. 

3. Preparing such a film was wasting the time of talented 
actors. 

4. Few people enjoy passing an aquarium without stopping 
to admire the goldfish. 


EXERCISE 10 

Give the syntax of the infinitives: 

1. The only way to have a friend is to be one. 

2. It is well to think well; it is divine to act well. 

3. I should like to have him come to the platform and take my 
seat. 

4. It takes very little water to make a perfect pool for a small 
fish. 

5. To lunch at the palace is to feel oneself in a pleasant and 
unpretentious family circle. 

6. When the college bell no longer sounds to call us to our 
work, we shall find how hard a thing it is to be our own masters. 

7. Is it too much to ask the business man to forget the old 


THE PARTS OF THE SENTENCE 287 

bog} r of the know-it-all young graduate, and to give the present- 
day eager, rather humble, young person a chance? 

8. Children in Norway are taught to love good pictures. 


EXERCISE 11 

Analyze or diagram these sentences , or give the syntax of all words, 
phrases, and clauses. 

1. In tactful but clear and cogent language he disagreed with 
his colleague, and declared that our Navy should be only as large 
as that of any nation with which this country may possibly be 
involved in war. 

2. And such, he anticipates, will be the fate of his own work, 
which, however it may be admired in its day and held up as a 
model of purity, will in the course of years grow antiquated and 
obsolete, until it shall become almost as unintelligible in its native 
land as an Egyptian obelisk, or one of those Runic inscriptions 
said to exist in the desert of Tartary. 

3. There could hardly be a better example than Mr. D. W. 
Griffith’s remarkable moving-picture play called Way Down East 
of the assertion in Mr. H. T. Pulsifer’s recent article in the Out¬ 
look called The World’s Worst Failure that the movies “have ran¬ 
sacked the granaries of drama and fiction and borne off more often 
the chaff than the wheat.” 

4. Breathes there the man, with soul so dead, 

Who never to himself hath said, 

This is my own, my native land, 

Whose heart hath ne’er within him burned, 

As home his footsteps he hath turned 
From wandering on a foreign strand? 

If such there breathe, go, mark him well. 


5. Feeling, perhaps, that there is little likelihood that a future 
Shakespeare or a future Macaulay may arise to deal with the 
Peace Conference and with its most outstanding personality. 


288 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


Mr. Lansing believed it to be his duty to interpret that person¬ 
ality himself. 

6. Once in an ancient city, whose name I no longer remember, 
Raised aloft on a column, a brazen statue of Justice 
Stood in the public square, upholding the scales in its left 

hand, 

And in its right a sword, as an emblem that justice presided 
Over the laws of the land, and the hearts and homes of 
the people. 

7. So live, that when thy summons comes to join 
The innumerable caravan, which moves 

To that mysterious realm, where each shall take 
His chamber in the silent halls of death, 

Thou go not, like the quarry-slave at night, 

Scourged to his dungeon, but, sustained and soothed 
By an unfaltering trust, approach thy grave, 

Like one who wraps the drapery of his couch 
About him, and lies down to pleasant dreams. 


// 


CHAPTER XVI 

THE CORRECT AND EFFECTIVE SENTENCE 

Comma Blunder and Period Blunder 

Don’t use the comma at the end of a complete sentence. 

(Comma blunder) In one corner was a heap of rags, which 
evidently were used for bedding, a rickety table upon which a few 
sticks of wood were placed occupied the center of the room. 

(Right) In one corner was a heap of rags, which evidently were 
used for bedding. A rickety table upon which a few sticks of wood 
were placed occupied the center of the building. 

To avoid the comma blunder, use a period after every 
principal clause with its modifiers unless it is clearly con¬ 
nected with another principal clause to form a compound 
sentence. When in doubt, use the period. Notice that 
the semicolon, not the comma, is used between the members 
of a compound sentence that are not closely connected; as, 

Our actions are our own; their consequences belong to Heaven. 

Don’t use the period after the fraction of a sentence 
unless the fragment is really a sentence with the subject and 
verb omitted. 

(Right) Now for my opponent’s second point. (Now I shall 
consider my opponent’s second point.) 

(Right) When were you in Pittsburg? In September, 1922. 
(I was in Pittsburg in September, 1922.) 

(Period blunder) Force in a sentence is secured by putting an 
emphatic word at the end and arranging a series as a climax. By 
using specific words. By striking out unnecessary words. 

289 


290 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


(Right) Force in a sentence is secured by putting an emphatic 
word at the end, by arranging a series as a climax, by using specific 
words, and by striking out unnecessary words. 

The expression, “The deplorable lack of manners that 
disfigures the present age,” is not a sentence because 
there is no principal clause. “That disfigures the present 
age” is a subordinate clause because it is used as an ad¬ 
jective to modify lack. On the contrary, the statement, 
“A deplorable lack of manners disfigures the present age,” 
is a sentence because it is a principal clause. 


EXERCISE 1 

Correct the following. If necessary, supply a subject and a predi¬ 
cate for a principal clause. Give the syntax of each phrase and 
subordinate clause used. Point out the subject and the predicate of 
each principal clause. 

1. Two pockets six inches long and five inches wide to be made 
on each side not more than five inches below the waist. 2. Do you 
realize what that means, it means actually making a slave of a 
student who should have a free mind. 3. Since the new require¬ 
ments for high-school graduation are better than the old because 
they broaden the pupil’s opportunity and training and better fit 
him for life. Therefore every high school in the city should adopt 
the new requirements for graduation. 4. Why should we worry 
about the future, let us do our best today. 5. His name was 
Paris, when he was a small boy, Venus had told him he would 
marry the most beautiful woman in the world. 6. The bill makes 
eight hours a legal day. Just as the law prescribes the standard 
length of a yard when cloth is sold by the yard. 7. As I was 
about to leave the house, the old woman returned, she, like the 
child, was clad in garments of rags. 8. Referring to your claim 
of May 29 amounting to $1.60. If you will let us have the origi¬ 
nal bill of lading, we will close out this matter. 9. To make a 
kite you must have two sticks about one-fourth inch thick. One 


THE CORRECT AND EFFECTIVE SENTENCE 291 

twenty-four, the other thirty inches long. 10. Some para¬ 
graphs in this oration are very picturesque. For example, the 
one in which he compares the revolution with a wheel. 11. I 
learned that it is wise to allow oneself a certain number of minutes 
lor each question. The time depending upon the number of 
questions and the length of the examination. 12. The boys during 
the war gave their best for us, what can we do to show that we 
haven’t forgotten? 13. Hoping that you will avail yourself of 
this unusual opportunity to purchase silverware of unique design. 
14. His tie looked as if it had been around his neck several years. 
Then his hat which gave me the impression that it was a family 
relic. 15. It was too long to fit into the handlebars, besides how 
could I hold it there? 16. Rowdyism on the street cars is common 
among the boys who travel to and from school by car, they pre¬ 
tend to be young gentlemen but lack the essentials of gentility. 
17. When reading a poem, you should never take it line bjr line 
but read the whole poem three or four times, then try to say it 
without the book if you should stumble over a word study the 
poem awhile longer then try again without the book. 18. Why 
do you run, this is only a stranger coming in quest of food. 
19. The Pied Piper walked in followed by the singing and dancing 
children, when the last were inside the mountain it resumed its 
natural shape. Only one lame boy being left behind because he 
could not keep up with the others. 20. Finally the engines 
reached the fire, while preparing the apparatus for the fire, John 
Binns, one of the firemen, saw a boy standing in an upper window 
of the burning building. 21. In the background a boy hanging 
to a narrow ledge so high that their longest ladder wouldn’t reach 
him. 22. Before me I saw a large white structure, upon inquiry 
I found that it was the New York Public Library. 23. Poly¬ 
phemus had in his cave a large fire where he cooked his food or 
anything which he felt like eating. Such as his sheep or strange 
men if they happened to cross his path. 24. In this cartoon there 
were three persons. A girl whose name was Mary. A villain 
whose name was Pedro. And a kind man whose name was 
Algernon. 25. We are sending you an exact duplicate of the 
order blank you sent in. So that you can see for yourself whose 
error caused the delay. 


292 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 

Case of Pronouns 

1. The subject of a finite verb is in the nominative 

case. 

Harry Thorpe’s sister is three years younger than he. 

2. The verb to be and other linking verbs take the 
same case after them as before. 

The story lets you know who his generals were. 

I believed it to be him. 

3. The object of a preposition or a verb is in the 

objective case. 

They became acquainted with a girl named Rose Red, whom they 
liked very much. 

The apples were given to John and me. 

To determine the correct case of the pronoun, arrange 
the sentence in the grammatical order. 

(Interrogative sentence) (Who, Whom) do you think wrote the 
best editorial? 

(Grammatical order) You do think (who, whom) wrote the best 
editorial? 

(Interrogative sentence) (Who, Whom) do you think I saw this 
morning? 

(Grammatical order) You do think I saw (who, whom) this 
morning? 

4. An appositive agrees in case with the word to which 
it is attached. 

He has two to boss him now, John and me. 

5. The subject of an infinitive is in the objective case. 

I believe him to be the man. 

6. A pronoun modifying a gerund is in the possessive 
case. 

This fountain pen may be carried in the pocket without any 
danger of its leaking. 


THE CORRECT AND EFFECTIVE SENTENCE 293 


EXERCISE 2 ,/ 

Supply the correct pronoun. Give the syntax of each pronoun 

selected. 

1. Silas gave most of his money to those-he thought were 

God’s poor (who, whom). 2. -do you think I received a letter 

from yesterday (Who, Whom)? 3. I don’t doubt that some of them 

thought it was (I, me). 4. She then went to the woman - 

had accused her (who, whom). 5. This is a long letter for a sick 

man like-to write (I, me). 6. If a voter does not know how 

to read, he doesn’t know-to vote for (who, whom). 7. Give 

your name and then ask for-you wish to speak to (whoever, 

whomever). 8. Now I have time to devote to those -, like 

yourself, I hope will be my particular customers (who, whom). 

9. The automobile ran over a little child-, I think, was killed 

instantly (who, whom). 10. In Athens daughters had to marry 

- the father wished them to wed (whoever, whomever). 

11. Mr. Smith had come to the home to find a girl-he could 

send through college (who, whom). 12. We had hopes of - 

getting well (him, his). 13. You have to know- to pass the 

ball to the moment jmu receive it (who, whom). 14. The book is 

about a peddler - all the Americans thought was an English 

spy (who, whom). 15. The man - I supposed was the ring¬ 

leader turned out to be innocent (who, whom). 16. The taller 

man was supposed to be (he, him). 17. She knew it to be - 

by the way I talked (I, me). 18. - do you suppose it was 

(Who, Whom)? 19. - can I trust if not - (Who, Whom) 

(he, him)? 20. I am sorry to hear of - doing such a thing 

(his, him). 21. Give it to - comes to the door (whoever, 

whomever). 22. A person - I think was Mr. Smith called 

today (who, whom). 23. I had not heard of-vanning a prize 

(you, your). 24. We like to be with those-we love and- 

we know love us, let them be-they may (who, whom) (who, 

whom) (who, whom). 25. The scout master selected for the 

climb those - he thought strongest (who, whom). 26. Going 

through the woods, King Richard was attacked by some men 

- he thought were bandits (who, whom). 27. Was it- 

-you saw yesterday (she, her) (who, whom)? 28. I am sur- 
































294 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


prised at-growing so thin (him, his). 29. It could not have 

been - - you told (we, us) (who, whom). 30. The old 

Dutch settlers - I am going to describe wore wooden shoes 

(who, whom). 31. What is the use of-studying algebra (me, 

my)? 32. -do you think threw the snowball (Who, Whom)? 

33. The General Organization will give a gold medal to - 

writes the best school song (whoever, whomever). 34. The man 

-I believed my friend proved to be my enemy (who, whom). 

35. -do you think I met this morning (Who, Whom)? 36.- 

do you think me to be (Who, Whom)? 37. -do you think I 

am (Who, Whom)? 38. He was a man-the broker knew was 

looking for an investment (who, whom). 39. The Phaeacians 

gave many gifts to strangers, - they thought were sent by 

the gods (who, whom). 40. Our success depends on every - 

doing his duty (one, one’s). 41. They asked you and - to 

come (I, me). 42. -do you suppose he meant (Who, Whom)? 

43. That is the man- I heard was ill (who, whom). 44. He 

felt satisfied that it was --or- (she, her) (I, me). 45. Do 

you think there is any chance of-finding him at home (me, 

my)? 46. The rest must have been as glad as-to escape 

(us, we). 47. There is more likelihood of - leaving than of 

her (me, my). 48. It was surely not - who were suspected 

(us, we). 


Verb and Subject 

A verb agrees with its subject in number and person. 

1. Modifiers of the subject do not affect the number 
of the verb. Don’t be misled by them. Search out the 
subject and make the verb agree with it. 

The new rules for promotion are better than the old. 

All the learning of past centuries was forgotten. 

There were two boys carrying silver candles. 

2. Singular nouns connected by and require a plural 
verb. “Harry and James are here” means that two boys 
are here. 

Exceptions. The verb is singular — 
























THE CORRECT AND EFFECTIVE SENTENCE 295 


(1) When the words are nearly synonymous; as, “Wherein doth 

sit the fear and dread of kings.” * 

(2) When the words name one idea or complete object; as, 

“The wheel and axle is a mechanical power.” 

(3) Often when the subjects follow the verb. 

This is the case even if one of the subjects is plural; as, “There 
was hurrying to and fro and tears and tremblings of distress.” 

(4) When a second verb may be understood; as, “There was 
racing and (there was) chasing on Cannobie Lee.” 

3. A word that is plural in form but names a single 
object or idea takes a singular verb. 

Forty cents is too much for the book. 

Captains of Industry tells how and why some men have achieved 
success. 

Two-fifths of an apple is less than a half. 

4. A verb having a compound subject connected by or 
or nor agrees with the nearer subject. 

As “Either his hat or his coat is lost” means that one object is 
lost, the verb is singular. As “Either his hat or his gloves are 
lost” means that either one object is lost or two objects are lost, 
the verb agrees with the nearer subject word glcv3S. 

(Right) Either John or I am captain of the dramatization squad. 

(Better) Either John is captain of the dramatization squad, or 

I am. 


5. You always takes a plural verb. 

You weren't at the game. 

6. Each, every, either, neither, any one, anybody, every 
one, everybody, some one, somebody, no one, nobody, one, 
many a, and a person are singular. 

Every one has stood by his word. 

Every leaf and twig is moving. 

Neither of the sentences is forceful. 




29G 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


7. A collective noun takes a singular verb when the 
group is thought of and a plural verb when the individuals 
are thought of. 

The crowd was very great. 

The crowd were throwing stones. 


EXERCISE 3 

Choose the correct verb. Give the reason. 

1. Mathematics - a difficult subject (is, are). 2. There 

- some unfortunate tendencies in our government (is, are). 

3. English and history-the student a knowledge of his own 

language and history (gives, give). 4. The Harvard football 

team-beaten by Yale by the score of six to three (was, were). 

5. One of the tonsils - diseased (is, are). 6. They have stiff 

bristles, which - up dirt and thread (picks, pick). 7. There 

-not so many large and beautiful houses as there-today 

(was, were) (is, are). 8. Nothing but trials and disappointments 

-to await me (seems, seem). 9. About three-sevenths of the 

work - his own (is, are). 10. The expression free textbooks 

-reference to books lent to the pupil by the Board of Educa¬ 
tion (has, have). 11. Many a traveler in Switzerland - Rigi 

Kulm (climbs, climb). 12. Neither of us - well (is, are). 

13. An alligator - make the best pet (doesn’t, don’t). 

14. Every bud and blossom-opening wide (is, are). 15. There 

- grass and flowers between the fence and the building (is, 

are). 16. The congregation-free to go their way (was, were). 

17. Not one of the seven - injured (was, were). 18. Mary, 

why - you late this morning (was, were)? 19. Neither pre¬ 
cept nor principle - so forcible as habit (is, are). 20. Is it 

John or Mary who-at the head of the class (stands, stand)? 

21. It is one of those that-lost (was, were). 22. James and 

I-about to go home (was, were). 23. Every one of the boys 

-to blame (was, were). 24. The queen with all her attendants 

- waiting (is, are). 25. He is one of those who never - 

with the rights of others (interferes, interfere). 26. It-seem 

right to let this chance go (doesn’t, don’t). 27. It is one of the 





























THE CORRECT AND EFFECTIVE SENTENCE 297 


few books that - not spoiled by frequent reading (is, are). 

28. Three-fourths of his time-wasted (is, are). 29. Pure air, 

as well as sunlight, -needed for the growth of plants (is, 

are). 30. The Frank king with his son and many nobles-- 

taken prisoner (was, were). 31. Not one man in ten -how 

to use his money to the best advantage (knows, know). 32. It is 

I that-in the wrong (am, is). 33. Five dollars-too much 

for the hat (is, are). 34. The Pickwick Papers - written by 

Dickens (was, were). 35. The committee - all phases of the 

question (discusses, discuss). 36. The regiment - completely 

destroyed by the gas attack (was, were). 37. Around the table 

-chairs in which the wooers sat when, they dined (was, were). 

38. He did this because of the critical condition in which the 
affairs of the country (was,, were). 39. The number of burglaries 

far-the number of fires (exceeds, exceed). 40. The costliness 

of his armor and apparel-seen at a glance (is, are). 41. Either 

the young man or his guardians - done wrong (has, have). 

42. To choose words judiciously and to use them accurately- 

highly important in composing (is, are). 43. The assembly one 

by one - leaving the room (is, are). 44. Oatmeal and milk 

-a good breakfast dish (is, are). 45. The door of one cell is 

open and within - two figures (stands, stand). 46. On each 

side of the butler-two boys carrying tall lighted candles (is, 

are). 47. Washington’s unselfishness, modesty, and loyalty- 

well shown in his acceptance of the presidency (is, are). 48. Up 

-four men with scaling ladders (goes, go). 49. The number of 

high-school graduates - increasing (is, are). 50. A box of 

figs-sent us for Christmas (was, were). 

Pronoun and Antecedent 

A pronoun agrees with its antecedent in number, person, 
and gender. Find the antecedent of the pronoun. Then, 
if you don’t know the number of the antecedent, consult 
the rules for subject and verb. 

1. His may be'used to refer to one. Some authorities, 
however, consider one’s better usage. 

2. His is generally preferable to the clumsy his or her. 

























298 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


Every pupil in class had used the method of outlining in studying 
his history lesson. 


EXERCISE 4 

Select the correct words. Give the reason for each selection. 

1. When Faith thought there was a person in the village who 

needed her, she was the first to help- (him, them). 2. Biology 

is helpful to a person wishing to take up farming as it gives- 

a knowledge of plant laws (him, them). 3. A Jonah is one who 

people say brings hard luck with-(him, them). 4. If a person 

wishes to win a good position, - must have at least a high- 

school education (he, they). 5. Every one did - best (his, 

their). 6. Spanish is not a difficult subject if one does-home¬ 

work every day (his, their, one’s). 7. Neither of them had mis¬ 
takes in - exercises (his, their). 8. Each of the men after 

-appointment must report as speedily as possible to the 

President (his, their). 9. Neither Charles nor his brother ate 

-breakfast this morning (his, their). 10. When one is young, 

-easily discouraged (he is, one is, they are). 11. Each member 

of the little group had by this time reached-home (his, their). 

12. Every one should know what is best for- (himself, them¬ 
selves). 13. If any one has not finished, let - hold up 

(him, them) (his hand, their hands). 14. Any boy not having a 

ticket of admission must come with - parents (his, their). 

15. When you sell a person a dress, don’t ask whether - to 

have it sent (she wishes, they wish). 16. Before any one is em¬ 
ployed by the National Cloak & Suit Company, -must pass 

an examination (he, he or she, they)- 17. In the United States 

everybody can get-rights (his, his or her, their). 18. Every 

one knows - own condition better than I can know it (his, 

his or her, their). 19. Everybody at the party enjoyed - 

(himself, himself or herself, themselves). 20. The company has 

hired an attorney to look after - interests in the settlement 

(its, their). 21. The whole class knew - lesson and should 

be praised for - diligence (its, their) (its, their). 22. The 

jury are considering the case in-room (its, their). 23. When 

he shoots a partridge, a pigeon, or a pheasant, he gives-away 

(it, them). 24. Many a man returns home with less than - 




























THE CORRECT AND EFFECTIVE SENTENCE 299 


went away with (he, they). 25. The army went to-barracks 

and soon began-exercises (its, their) (its, their). 26. Every 

act and every thought-effect on our character (has its, have 

their). 27. Every man and boy showed-joy by shouting and 

clapping - hands (his, their) (his, their). 28. Many a man 

squanders money when -young (he is, they are). 29. Every 

one found it necessary to carry a sword for-own protection 

(his, their). 30. Then a fairy gives each one a little green hat with 

which-can look into the future or the past and see the souls 

of trees and other things (he, they). 


Compound Personal Pronoun and Relative 

Pronoun 

1. The compound personal pronoun is used to refer 
back to the subject or to emphasize the noun or pronoun 
to which it is attached; as, 

He struck himself. He himself did it. 

Myself should not be used for 7, and not, as a rule, for 
me. Himself, herself, and themselves are used like myself. 

(Wrong) Jenkins and myself are planning to work on a farm in 
Westchester County this summer. 

(Right) Jenkins and I are planning to work on a farm in West¬ 
chester County this summer. 

2. Who is used chiefly of persons; which, of animals or 
things; that, of persons, animals, or things. That is used 
only in a clause which is essential to the expression of 
the thought of the clause it modifies. In essential clauses 
who or which is used — 

(1) When the antecedent is limited by that. 

(2) When the conjunction that occurs in close proximity. 

(3) When the antecedent is a pronoun or pronominal 
adjective. 

(4) After a preposition. 

(5) For variety when there are two or more relative 
clauses. 










300 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 

(6) When the relative is separated from the rest of the 
clause. 

What never has an antecedent. As is used as a relative 
pronoun after such and same. 

EXERCISE 5 

Select the correct words. Give the reason for each selection. 

1. John and-played tennis (I, myself). 2. Her friend was 

slightly better off than- (she, herself). 3. In the sketch are 

three men, two of - are running rapidly (which, whom). 

4. Everything - is beautiful deserves the protection of all 

who love beauty (that, which, who). 5. The men-were en¬ 

gaged on the work were good artisans (who, which, that). 6. Car¬ 
penters use the spirit level to find out whether corner posts and 

such other pieces of material - have a vertical position are 

exactly upright (as, that). 7. We shall try to avoid losing such 

old customers as- (you, yourself). 8. The wise man is like a 

bird-stays by - (who, which, that) (himself, itself). 

9. Johnston, Cummings, and-are members of the committee 

(I, myself). 10. My opponents and - agree that the new 

requirements for graduation permit greater freedom in the election 
of subjects (I, myself). 11. In college many people find the 

friends-mean most to them in later life (that, which, who). 

12. In the corner of the cave was a pen for the sheep,-were 

brought in for the night (that, which, who). 13. When I become 

frightened, I forget all - I have studied (that, which, what). 

14. Yesterday Allen, Jack, and - went out for a bicycle ride 

(I, myself). 15. He is the one- I want to see (that, whom). 

Principal Parts of Verbs 

EXERCISE 6 

Insert in the blank spaces the required forms of the verbs. When in 
doubt, consult the conjugation and list of principal parts in the 
appendix. 

1. He - a mile in six minutes (past of run). 2. I - a 

long letter (present perfect active of write). 3. At the circus 



















THE CORRECT AND EFFECTIVE SENTENCE 301 


I a hyena (past active of see). 4. The rope- (past per¬ 

fect active of break). 5. My cousin —back to the country 

(present perfect of go). 6. A slave trader - to Mr. Leslie’s 

house one day (past of come). 7.-you will find a cashier’s check 

for five dollars (past participle passive of inclose). 8. The boy 

down the stairs and-his tennis racket (past perfect tense 

of fall and of break). 9. During the night his ear- (past 

passive of freeze). 10. The assassins of Marshal Wilson- 

(past passive of hang). 11. When he - old, his face looked 

like the Great Stone Face (past of become). 12. He - on a 

freight car the entire distance from New York (past perfect active 

of ride). 13. He-around the island (present perfect of swim). 

14. The paper-into tiny pieces (past passive of tear). 15. I 

that angle A equals angle B (present perfect active of prove). 

16. The car- from the garage (past perfect passive of take). 

17. He - an hour early (past perfect of awake). 18. The 

squirrel-his hand (past perfect active of bite). 19. When he 

-the glass of ginger ale, he-into the water (past perfect 

active of drink and past of dive). 20. That airman-a thou¬ 
sand miles in a day (present perfect tense of fly). 21. He-the 

doorbell a dozen times and then-to be discouraged (past 

active of ring and begin). 22. He-a song which-for him 

by Franz Schubert (past tense active of sing and past perfect 

passive of write). 23. With much difficulty he - ten tickets 

for the opera (past perfect active of get). 24. Richards-skill 

and pluck and-three state champions (present perfect active 

of show and beat). 25. When Harry entered, Jack - to his 

feet but soon - back into his seat (past tense of spring and 

sink). 

Sit, Set, Lie, Lay, Rise, Raise 

Set, lay, and raise are transitive verbs. In the active 
voice these words require objects. Sit, lie, and rise never 
take objects. 

One day he laid a concrete sidewalk, but the next day he lay 

in bed. 

The hen sat all day where we set her. 

They raised the flag as the sun rose. 































302 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


EXERCISE 7 

Give the principal parts of sit, set, lie, lay, rise, and raise. 

Insert the correct form of lay or lie. Give the reason for each 
choice. 

1. Father is- down. 2. The sprinkler has - the dust. 

3. Indiana -- between Ohio and Illinois. 4. Mother had 

just - down to rest when the doorbell rang. 5. The people 

saw Eppie’s mother - in the snow. 6. He - the package 

on the desk. 7. The ship ran down a small fishing smack that 

was - at anchor. 8. During last night’s concert Irving - 

still listening to the music. 9. -on the floor are bits of paper. 

10. Yesterday I-a long time on the ground. 11. The cabbage 

leaf withered and-flat on his head. 


EXERCISE 8 

Insert the correct form of sit or set. Give the reason for each 
choice. 

1. Pluto-Proserpine on a throne beside him. 2. -the 

hen on the nest, and let her-. 3. -the desk in the corner. 

4. Let the little fellow-in front. 5. Last evening I-the 

trap. 6. One day last summer I-down on this stump to rest. 

7. He was - there by the track. 


EXERCISE 9 

Insert the correct form of rise or raise. Give the reason for each 
choice. 

1. Having-to the surface, he seized the child and-her 

upon a piece of wreckage. 2. Let the dough - near a warm 

stove. 3. Do you know why this bread doesn’t- ? 

Subjunctive Mood 

The subjunctive mood is used for a wish, a condition 
contrary to fact, and volition. 

























THE CORRECT AND EFFECTIVE SENTENCE 303 


If I were you, I should learn how to study. (Condition contrary 
to fact.) 

I wish I were in Florida. (Wish.) 

God bless you. (Volition.) 

I insist that he go at once. (Volition.) 

Everybody stand up. (Volition.) 


Tense 

The tenses must be so used as to indicate the relative 
time of the acts or states expressed. 

“I thought I could have done that” should be “ 1 thought I could 
do that,” because the thinking took place before the doing and could 
have expresses a time prior to that expressed by thought. 

1. Actions that take place at the same time must be 
expressed by the same tense. Don’t carelessly shift from 
the past to the present or the present to the past. 

(Wrong) They broke up the meetings that they don’t like. 

(Right) They broke up the meetings that they didn't like. 

2. The past tense represents a particular action in past 
time. The present perfect tense represents a past act 
which extends, at least in its consequences, to the present. 

I lost my book. (This statement has to do only with the past 
act of losing the book, which may since have been found.) 

I have lost my book. (Here the consequences extend to the present. 
The book has not been recovered.) 

The Buick ran for six years. (It doesn’t run now.) 

The Buick has run for ten years. (It still runs.) 

He passed chemistry last term. (He may be failing this term.) 

He has always earned an honor mark in English. (His ability 
and energy extend to the present.) 

3. The past perfect tense represents action prior to 
some past time. 

When I reached home, I discovered that I had lost my book. 
(The discovery took place in past time, and the losing occurred prior 
to the discovery.) 


304 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


As 1 had seen only one before, I examined it with great care. 
(Had seen is correct because the seeing took place before the 
examining.) 

4. The past infinitive and past participle represent 
action prior to that of the verb; the present infinitive 
and present participle, action at the time expressed by 
the verb or subsequent to it. 

During my visit to Mineola I hoped to ride in a Caproni. (To 
have ridden would be incorrect because the riding did not occur 
before the hoping.) 

1 intended to buy a pair of gloves. (Intending precedes buying.) 

5. The present tense is used to express what is custom¬ 
ary or always true. 

The science teacher told the class that water expands when it 
freezes. 

6. The present tense may be used for the past in vivid 
narration. 

Caesar crosses the Rubicon, enters Rome. 


EXERCISE 10 

Insert the correct word. Give the reason. 

1. Kindly let me know whether such a hag has been found, so 

that I-call for it (may, might). 2. When I reached home, I 

discovered that I - my suitcase (forgot, had forgotten). 

3. Tom said that he-a good way to get rid of warts (knows, 

knew). 4. Although these cases were shipped a month ago, the 

purchaser-the goods yet (did not receive, has not received). 

5. Washington closed his address with the hope that what - 

been done during his administration-benefit the people (has, 

had) (may, might). G. He recalled the names of the dead heroes 

and told the audience what these men - to free this country 

(have done, had done). 7. Its grimy hue suggests that many a 









THE CORRECT AND EFFECTIVE SENTENCE 305 


day has elapsed since its original coat of dark red paint - 

applied (has been, had been, was). 8. If Squire Cass’s sons- 

him, they would have considered his feelings (loved, had loved). 

9. If Godfrey-so weak in nature, he would have resisted all 

temptations (were not, had not been). 10. Circe told him that 
when he arrived at the land of the Sirens he should fill the ears of 

his men with wax so that they-not hear the song of the Sirens 

(may, might). 11. Modern history is the record of events that 

- recently (happened, have happened): 12. - you will 

find seventy-five dollars (Inclose, Inclosed).- 13. As we were 

walking across the desert, we realized how necessary water - 

to people (is, was). 14. The teacher told us that air-made of 

two gases (is, was). 15. He asked how many miles it-from 

New York to Boston (is, was). 16. I wished-earlier (to go, 

to have gone). 17. Since Shakespeare’s time the theaters - 

(changed, have changed). 18. The colonists were the descendants 

of the English and - the English conception of liberty (have, 

had). 19. Scott wished - the total indebtedness of his pub¬ 
lishers (to repay, to have repaid). 20. I intended-last week 

(to go, to have gone). 21. When I reached home, I found I- 

my books on the car (left, had left). 22. No sooner had we 

reached the house and-to feel at home than the order came 

to move on (began, begun). 23. He gave three proofs that the 

earth-round (is, was). 24. If he-a gentleman, he would 

have given his seat to the woman with the baby (was, were, had 
been). 25. Saturn was compelled to bring forth the other children 

whom he- (swallowed, had swallowed). 26. I intended- 

on Saturday (to write, to have written). 27. It is now four hun¬ 
dred years since printing- invented (has been, was). 28. If 

he-my son, I should be proud of him (was, were). 29. If I 

- he, I should be ashamed to go there again (was, were). 

30. Did not the doctor say that bad water-the cause of many 

epidemics• (is, was)? 31. He wished-weeks before (to go, to 

have gone). 32. If I-sure of finding her, I should go at once 

(was, were). 33. He said that the sun-round the earth once 

every twenty-four hours (goes, went). 34. Today he-nearly 

all the time (has laughed, laughed). 35. If he - younger, he 

would study medicine (was, were). 































306 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


Shall, Will, Should, Would 

1. To express a simple future, use shall in the first 
person and will in the second and third. 

I shall endeavor to prove the law unfair and oppressive. 

I shall he glad to see you. (“I will be glad to see you” could 
mean only “I am determined to be glad to see you.” This remark 
is nonsense because one doesn’t determine to be glad.) 

2. To express command, consent, wish, promise, or 
resolution, use will in the first person and shall in the 
second and third. 

We will let you enter the room. (Consent.) 

You shall receive the shoes next Tuesday. (Promise.) 

3. In first person questions use shall; in second and 
third person questions use the auxiliary expected in the 
answer. 

How shall I repay you? 

When will the train arrive ? (The answer is, “The train will 
arrive at 10.39.” Use will in the question because will is expected 
in the answer.) 

4. In an indirect quotation use the auxiliary that would 
be used if the quotation were direct. 

(Direct) He says, “I shall he twenty tomorrow.” 

(Indirect) He says that he shall be twenty tomorrow. 

5. In other subordinate clauses, shall and should are 
commonly used in all persons for the simple future; will 
and would, for wishing, consenting, and willing. 

If war should be abolished, misery would be lessened. 

6. Should and would follow the general uses of shall 
and will. 

I should like to see him loop the loop. 


THE CORRECT AND EFFECTIVE SENTENCE 307 

Exceptions. Would is used for — 

(1) A wish. " 

Would that I had never seen the man! 

(2) Habitual action. 

He would walk up and down his room all day. 

Should is used for — 

(1) Duty. 

He should stand by his friends. 

(2) A modest expression of opinion. 

I should think so. 

Some of these rules are disregarded by many intelligent and 
educated people. Therefore, “I will probably enter the Columbia 
University Law School in September/’ although not the best usage, 
is correct colloquial English. The rule, however, indicates the prac¬ 
tice of most writers. 


EXERCISE 11 

Supply the preferred form — shall, will, should, would. Justify 
each choice. 

1. We-be much pleased to have you examine the racket. 

2. The two books I - compare are A Friend of Caesar and 

The Fortunate Youth. 3. I think it-not be a bit of use. 4. I 

guarantee that every penny-be paid. 5. -the admission 

be 25 or 50 cents? 6. I -be very much obliged to him if he 

- arrange the matter. 7. Are you afraid that you -miss 

the train? 8. If you- call for me, I-be glad to go with 

you. 9. I - feel greatly obliged to you if you - tell me. 

10. The clerk promised that the parcel-be here by six o’clock. 

11. I - want to keep my word. 12. The man informed us 

that he-be ready at one o’clock and that his friend-also 

be readyr. 13. I - take cold if the window is not closed. 

14. He was afraid that he-be late. 15. Which road to Lake 

Placid - I find the better? 16. When - the performance 

begin? 17. My colleagues and I - point out the defects in 

the present system and suggest a remedy. 18. - I take you 

back? 19. He promises that he - see ymu. 20. - you be 

glad when this examination is ended? 21. I fear that I-not 



























308 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


be able to come. 22. If no one assists me, I-starve; but sell 

my books, that I -never do! 23. He promised that he- 

send us a picture of San Marco. 24. I-like to arrange a de¬ 

bate between our schools. 25. Probably I be there to meet 

you. 26. - I help you, or - you do it alone? 27. I fear 

I-not be able to pass my examination. 28. I-be aston¬ 

ished if he went to church. 29. If he not succeed, then I 
-be the loser. 30. When- we reach Decatur? 

Adjectives and Adverbs 

1. Use the comparative when comparing two. 

He is the faster runner but the slower student of the two. 

2. When the comparative is used for more than two, 
exclude from the group the object compared. 

(Wrong) New York is wealthier than any city in the United 
States. 

(Right) New York is wealthier than any other city in the United 
States. 

The incorrect sentence states that New York is wealthier than it¬ 
self because New York is one of the cities in the group any city in the 
United States. 

3. With the superlative include in the group the object 
compared. 

New York is the wealthiest city in the United States. 

4. Avoid double comparison {more fitter, most unkindest). 
These forms were common in early English but are now 
errors. 

(Wrong) He is more wiser than he looks. 

(Right) He is wiser than he looks. 

5. This and that are singular; these and those, plural. 

(Wrong) No one would order those kind of oranges. 

(Right) No one would order that kind of orange. 














THE CORRECT AND EFFECTIVE SENTENCE 309 

6. Repeat the article before a second noun in a series 
for contrast, clearness, or emphasis'.' 

Happiness belongs to neither the poor nor the rich. 

The chairman and the speaker of the evening have not yet arrived. 

7. When two or more adjectives modify a noun, repeat 
the article only if different objects are meant. 

The green and white house has been torn down. 

The green and the white house need extensive repairs. 

The green and white house means one house. The green and the 
white house means two houses. 

8. Omit the article after sort and kind. 

(Wrong) The kangaroo is a strange sort of an animal. 

(Right) The kangaroo is a strange sort of animal. 

9. Use a before consonant sounds and an before vowel 
sounds. Don’t make the mistake of thinking of letters 
instead of sounds. A hour is wrong because the h is silent. 

10. Avoid the double negative. The negative is not 
used with hardly, scarcely, only, and but when it means 
only. 

(Wrong) I don’t know nothing about the transmigration of 
souls. 

(Right) I don’t know anything about the transmigration of souls. 

EXERCISE 12 

Select the correct word in each sentence and give a reason for the 
choice: 

Comparative and Superlative 

1. Which of the books on the travel list is the (better, best)? 
2. The World has one hundred thousand larger circulation than 
(any, any other) paper. 3. Of the poets Longfellow and Whitman, 
the (former, first) is the (better, best) known. 4. Of all Thack¬ 
eray’s novels, Henry Esmond is the (more, most) interesting. 
5. It was more like real life than (any, any other) story I have 
ever read. 6. My father drinks more water than (any, any other) 


310 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


man I know, and he isn’t fat. 7. Shakespeare is the greatest (of, 
of all other) English poets. 8. It was the (saddest, most saddest) 
sight I ever saw. 9. Paris is larger than (any, any other) city in 
France. 10. Of two evils choose the (less, lesser, least). 11. The 
birds of Brazil are more beautiful than (any, any others) in South 
America. 12. Diamonds are more valuable than (any, any other) 
precious stone. 

Double Negative 

1. I haven’t done (nothing, anything). 2. He (can’t, can) 
hardly see the speaker. 3. I (could, couldn’t) hardly get my 
breath. 4. There (is, isn’t) but one in the village. 5. The Greeks 
didn’t have (any, no) pity on their enemies. 6. I (have, haven’t) 
had nothing to do with the matter. 

A, An, The, This, These, That, Those 

1. I like (that, those) kind of game. 2. He was transformed 
into a repulsive sort of (an animal, animal). 3. Hermes gave him 
(a, an) herb. 4. Go south on Park Avenue for about a half (block, 
a block). 5. Beyond the ridge we saw the village church and 
(schoolhouse, the schoolhouse). 6. A fountain pen is a great 

convenience to the business man and (scholar, the scholar) as it 
saves money for the one and time for the other. 7. (That, Those) 
kind of game is very exciting. 8. The secretary and (treasurer, 
the treasurer) gave their reports. 9. She hesitated between the 
black and (white, the white) dress. 


EXERCISE 13 

Correct the errors and give the reason in each case. Some sentences 
are correct. 

1. He prefers those kind of games. 2. It’s not a bit of use, 
I don’t think; so I shall not try. 3. I can’t find my book no 
place. 4. The pupil knows what talents he has better than any 
one. 5. We were all to meet at the village church in a half an hour. 
6. Mrs. Williams has more flowers than any other woman on her 
street. 7. A sharp tongue is the only edged tool that grows more 
keener with constant use. 8. Marie likes that kind of story 


THE CORRECT AND EFFECTIVE SENTENCE 311 


best. 9. The new requirements for high-school graduation are 
more preferable than the old. 10. The second was the better of 
the two. 11. The Louvre has a new and old part. 12. A glacier 
is a kind of a river. 13. The lost rhetoric is a black and gray 
book. 14. Lincoln is the sort of a man we admire. 15. The 
secretary and treasurer was praised for his good work. 16. The 
pea-green and pink necktie is rather conspicuous. 

Wrong Part of Speech 

Don’t interchange conjunctions and prepositions. As, 
than, and unless are commonly conjunctions. Like, from, 
and without are never conjunctions. 

i 

The English Christmas is different from the American. 

She speaks as I do. 


EXERCISE 14 

Select the correct words. Explain what each word selected connects. 

1. He doesn’t work (as, like) I do. 2. My book is different 
(from, than) Miss Hallam’s. 3. How could you get the water 
back (without, unless) you had a series of ditches. 4. They feared 
that Washington might become a despot (as, like) Napoleon had. 
5. He gazed on a sight very different (from, than) what he saw in 
Weldin’s window. 6. My English mark was different (than, 
from what) I expected. 7. The Shakespearean theaters hadn’t 
roofs (as, like) theaters have nowadays. 8. (Except, Unless) 
we exercise in the open air daily, we shall not have strong bodies. 
9. I shall not go (without, unless) he goes. 10. The theaters of 
Shakespeare’s time were much different (from, than) our modern 
theaters. 

Don’t use an adjective to modify a verb, adjective, or 
adverb. 

(Wrong) I sure was glad to see my mother. 

(Right) I surely was glad to see my mother. 

Slow, loud, quick, fast, cheap, right, wrong, clear, ill, 
and deep are used as adjectives or adverbs. 

(Right) Drive slow. Come quick. Speak louder. 


312 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


EXERCISE 15 

Select the correct word and give the syntax of the word chosen. 

1. Telephones in many cases are used-(careless, carelessly). 

2. The boy crawled like a snail-to school (unwilling, unwill¬ 
ingly). 3. His thoughts came-(irregular, irregularly). 4. Her 

teacher was-surprised to find Helen still in the tree (real, 

really). 5. Other fountain pens are filled - (different, 

differently). 

After look , feel, taste, smell, and sound, use a predicate 
adjective to describe the subject. 

(Wrong) The orange tastes sweetly. 

(Right) The orange tastes sweet. 


EXERCISE 16 

Select the correct word. Give the syntax of each word selected. 

1. The bell sounds (harsh, harshly). 2. She looks (beautiful, 
beautifully) in a white dress. 3. The silk feels (smooth, smoothly). 
4. Sir Walter Scott felt very (bad, badly) about the failure of his 
publishing house. 

Don’t carelessly use to and their as adverbs. 

(Right) There are too many errors in your work. 


EXERCISE 17 

Select the correct word. Give the reason. 

1. (There, Their) were forty boys at the game. 2. You use 
(to, too) many superlatives. 3. Rip Van Winkle was (to, too) 
lazy to earn a living. 4. (There, Their) were hardly any signs of 
life. 


Syntactical Redundance 

1. A pronoun and its antecedent are not used as subject 
of the same verb. 







THE CORRECT AND EFFECTIVE SENTENCE 313 

(V rong) A druggist who compounds prescriptions he must 
know Latin. 

(Right) A druggist who compounds prescriptions must know 
Latin. 

2. Cross out unnecessary prepositions. 

(Wrong) The only possible days are on Friday and Wednesday. 

(Right) The only possible days are Friday and Wednesday. 

(Wrong) Get off of my hat. 

(Right) Get off my hat. 

EXERCISE 18 

Correct and give reasons. 

1. This is a proposition which when you look into it, it will 
be hard for you to resist. 2. These people although they had 
many negro slaves nevertheless they had to work in the fields. 
3. This book is interesting because it tells about the story of 
Helen Keller. 4. When calling a person on the telephone, make 
a short pause in between the numbers. 5. On the dog’s collar 
were the initials of F. A. 6. The reason for my failure was because 
of absence. 7. He told about how the submarine was caught in 
the net. 8. The Greeks had many gods and goddesses to whom 
they prayed to when they wanted anything. 9. The door was 
opened by a lengthy, gawky boy of about fifteen years old. 10. I 
remember of hearing him make the statement. 11. I have learned 
that when a person is describing a building that he should usually 
suggest the point of view. 12. A social hour will follow after the 
address. 13. From whence has the stranger come? 14. They 
wouldn’t accept of my decision. 15. Why blame it on me? I don’t 
remember of doing anything of the sort. 16. Say, listen, this here 
book tells all about automobiles and airplanes and etc. 17. Brom 
Bones told of the Headless Horseman, whom he had seen and 
challenged him to a race. 18. I wish to consult with my attorney 
before deciding. 19. One day the boat upon which he was on 
landed on an island. 

Incorrect Omissions 

Subjects, verbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and adjectives 





314 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


necessary for the sense or the grammatical construction, 
are sometimes omitted. 

1. After the conjunction than or as, the verb or other 
words whose omission causes ambiguity must be inserted; 
as, “He likes, me better than you” should be “He likes 
me better than you like me,” or “better than he likes 
you.” 

2. A part of a verb that differs in form from the 
part expressed should not be omitted; thus, associate 
should be expressed in “They do not (associate), and 
never have associated, with such persons.” 

(Colloquial) The Harvard team hoped to defeat Yale as deci¬ 
sively as they had already Princeton. (Had defeat is not grammatical.) 

(Right) The Harvard team hoped to defeat Yale as decisively 
as they had already beaten Princeton. 

3. The subject or some word representing it should be 
inserted when the omission would perplex the reader. 
Thus: “He is helping his friends who are in dire distress, 
and (he or who) will accept the assistance of no other.” 

4. When there are two or more relative clauses, the 
relative pronoun must generally be repeated with each; 
as, “His heroes are men who have arrived by different 
roads at the same goal of despair, and (who) to the last 
defy the power of earth and heaven.” 

EXERCISE 19 

Complete the following sentences: 

1. He has the past year and will continue next year to study 
Spanish. 2. This is the best work that you ever have or ever will 
see. 3. All his sawing the air was no use for he didn’t seem to 
mean what he said. 4. Josephine is as tall or taller than her sister. 

5. The village preacher was dressed in black suit and long hands 
and wrinkled face. 6. Don’t sa}^ that I am not home. 7. Webster 
told his hearers they were on the same ground their fathers stood 
fifty years before. 8. Our wedding cakes are got up in a style 


THE CORRECT AND EFFECTIVE SENTENCE 315 


equal to any baker in the city. 9. The dress was a dark color. 
10. I know you better than Joe or Jatfk. 11. Received your 
letter in this morning’s mail and hasten to assure you that I shall 
be on hand on May 18. 12. Booker Washington graduated 

Hampton Institute. 13. The first place which Harry stopped 
on his trip was Ithaca. 14. Although Johnson was a genius, he 
did not rise in the world as quickly as a man of his ability should 
have. 15. The salary of a traveling companion is in many cases 
larger than a private secretary or stenographer. 16. The critics 
said that it was as good, if not better, than the Spectator. 17. I 
am hoping in your next letter to hear a great improvement in your 
work. 18. I have never been out of United States. 19. I have 
not and I will not do it. 20. He did exactly what many others 
have and are doing. 21. The interjection more nearly resembles 
a verb than any other part of speech. 22. She always thought 
more of attending to the wants of others than of herself. 23. My 
boyhood days were, in a measure, like all other boys, spent in 
school and at home. 24. If dead, his wife and children may apply. 
25. I have no more influence over him than others. 

Grammar Review 

EXERCISE 20 

Correct errors in the following. Give reasons for changes. Some 
sentences are correct. 

1. The ebb and flow of the tides has been accounted for. 

2. The idea of me being president seems utterly ridiculous. 

3. More than one has had a hand in the affair. 4. He said he 
would give it to whoever could solve the problem. 5. He told us 
there was two principal clauses in the sentence. 6. I intended to 
have written it on Saturday. 7. I wish you would come with my 
sister and me. 8. One, if not more, of these proprietors hold land 
in large quantities, buying it before the Land Act was passed. 

9. Every one must follow their own views on the question. 

10. Every club has an undoubted right to adopt a constitution 
for themselves. 11. If the donor was rich, the gift was too little; 
if he were poor, it was too much. 12. Neither my brother nor 


316 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


I were able to endure it any longer. 13. If he were here, he would 
open the box. 14. This is just as if an eye or a foot should 
demand a salar} r for their sendees to the body. 15. Three-quar¬ 
ters of the lake is shallow. 16. There is no use in me trying the 
examination. 17. No professional man, no business man, in fact 
no man of sense would risk their reputation by supporting such a 
cause. 18. Will I find you at home this evening? 19. If I stayed 
there, I should offend the archbishop. 20. A few inches more or 
less in a lady’s height makes a great difference. 21. I cannot 
help thinking that the proprietor of the hotel has not told all he 
knew. 22. If he was to find out that it was me who wrote it, he 
would be very angry. 23. If we act thus, we will be miserable 
ourselves and will make others miserable. 24. A person can rest 
as well in a Pullman car as they could in their own living room. 

25. He works as if his life depended on him attaining the position. 

26. Every boy and girl should avail themselves of any opportunity 
to get an education. 27. Your challenge should soon be answered 
if your antagonist was here. 28. Either you or I are the one who 
they have selected. 29. The ashes was taken out of the grate. 
30. The measles are very prevalent at this season. 31. Every 
subordinate clause may be modified as if it was a principal clause. 

32. The captain with many of the crew were lost in the storm. 

33. Did you ever hear what that man’s name was? 34. He 
supported those who he thought supported him. 35. I intended 
to have told you my experience with a real live bear. 36. He was 
sure that the objects that he had been watching was onfy cattle. 
37. He would have done a great deal better if he took a different 
course. 38. I have examined both the methods and believe the 
first to be the best. 39. The reports of the mayor and clerk 
were presented. 40. The last month or two has been spent among 
the islands. 41. As we were walking along, we come to a little 
sparrow laying on the ground. 42. He is one of those people who 
always wishes to be different than his associates. 43. As he lay 
there, he looked upward and saw a pendulum with a sharp blade, 
swinging above him. 44. Near the windows there is always seated 
three men working at the presses. 45. Penelope told the w r ooers 
that she will marry one of them as soon as she finishes her web. 
46. I once saw in the paper a cartoon, which I will be glad to de- 


THE CORRECT AND EFFECTIVE SENTENCE 317 


scribe to you. 47. I had expected to have seen him at the game. 
48. I would be glad to meet you any day to discuss the proposi¬ 
tion. 49. At the quarter mile post Bright Star was in the lead, 
but soon Moonbeam passes him. 50. When he got tired, he laid 
down. 


Word Order in an Indirect Question 

Although the direct question has a verb or an auxiliary 
before the subject, in the indirect question the subject 
precedes the verb. 

(Wrong) He asked the villagers did they know Rip Van Winkle. 
(Right) He asked the villagers whether they knew Rip Van 

Winkle. 


EXERCISE 21 

Correct the following sentences: 

1. He asked me am I going to the ball game. 2. I asked him 
what authorities can he quote to prove his statement. 3. King 
Alfred asked the servants what did they have in the house to eat. 
4. Captain Perez asked Captain Eri why were the two boots in 
the kitchen. 5. The police captain asked where did he, a tramp, 
come into possession of a gold locket. 

Saying What Is Meant 

Often there is a great gulf between our thoughts and 
our words. The boy who said, “ Willis was covered with 
dark stiff hair and brown eyes,” didn’t mean just what 
he said. 

1. Don’t use words without thinking what they mean. 
Careless choice of words leads to inaccuracy and 
contradiction. 

(Wrong) Good posture is my worst fault in oral composition. 

(Right) Poor posture is my worst fault in oral composition. 

2. Don’t jump from one construction to another. Know 


31$ 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 

the use of each word in the sentence. In other words, 
know how the words in the sentence are related. 

(Wrong) Joe’s dress was torn and so wouldn’t dance. (The 
sentence says that the dress wouldn’t dance.) 

(Right) As Joe’s dress was torn, she wouldn’t dance. 


EXERCISE 22 

Think what the writer or speaker was trying to say in each of the 
following sentences. Then express his thought exactly. 

1. Inclosed you will find a money order for three dollars, for 
which please send me C. 0. D. a pair of shoes. 2. The cat’s 
name is Trixy and has a blue bow on its neck. 3. Although I 
ordered the camera on February 15, I have neither heard nor seen 
it. 4. A little boy was hit by a car but did not hurt him. 5. By 
making her own dresses, a girl saves one hundred per cent. W Any 
discourtesy by our employees, if reported to the office, will be 
greatly appreciated. 7. No task was too hard for him to shirk. 

8. Unity cannot have more than one main idea in a paragraph. 

9. Not one of all the flowers are alike. 10. The size of the shoes 
is seven and must have gray cloth tops. 11. A common mistake 
in telephoning is not to put one’s mouth too near the transmitter. 
12. I consider the use of correct words my worst fault in oral 
composition. 13. The setting of this storj^ takes place in New 
York City. 14. Mary Antin didn’t like the spiders and other 
insects which were in biology. 15. Leave a margin one inch 
from the edge of the paper. 16. The reason for my failure in 
English was on account of sickness. 17. Silas Marner’s occupa¬ 
tion was a linen weaver. 18. His left front leg is all white and has 
a white neck with a brown spot on it. 19. The color of the purse 
was brown, had brown silk lining, and had about ten dollars in 
it. 20. The properties of oxygen are tasteless and odorless. 
21. One of my deficiencies in English is the ability to write a 
good examination paper. 22. Stevenson’s novel, Treasure Island, is 
so called because a treasure was buried there. 23. His reputation 
is equal to any writer in the country. 24. Your request for our 
new spring and summer catalogue will be sent to you within a few 


THE CORRECT AND EFFECTIVE SENTENCE 319 

weeks. 25. She told me her name was Rebecca, daughter of Isaac 
of York. 26. The scene of Arnold’s treason and Andre’s death 
took place on the banks of the Hudson. 27. When the arm of a 
chair falls off, the garage door needs fixing, the screens need to 
be put up, we can repair them ourselves. 28. Frances, my girl 
friend’s name, was making dolls’ dresses. 29. At this Rustum’s 
eyes glared and, shaking his spear, cried, “Rustum!” 30. Ameri¬ 
cans have for dinner on Christmas turkey, cranberries, and one 
or two servants who wait on the table. 31. One pupil who crosses 
the hall at the WTong place for the purpose of getting to his class 
quicker prevents several hundred others from doing so. 32. Some 
pupils think that the school is not theirs, but only the principal 
and the teachei. 33. The name of the book is The Fouv Million 
written by 0. Henry. 34. He was dressed in blue breeches, white 
waistcoat, wig, three-cornered hat, gold-headed cane, and high- 
heeled shoes. 


Awkwardness 

Awkward, clumsy, roundabout sentences commonly 
result from muddy thinking, association with illiterate 
friends, or foreign influence. If you know exactly what 
you wish to say, the sentence is likely to hit the mark. 
Speakers often, instead of thinking out their sentences, 
just happen into them and trust to luck to get out of 
them. The result is wordiness and clumsiness and often 
ambiguity. 

(Awkward) As your letter was indefinite to my thoughts about 
what you were speaking, I hope you write soon more definitely. 

(Right) As your letter was rather vague, I hope you will write 
soon more definitely. 

Sometimes the awkwardness results from using the wrong 
grammatical element: phrase for clause, clause for phrase, 
or infinitive phrase for participial phrase. 

(Wrong) This prevents the young chickens to eat their shells. 

(Right) This prevents the young chickens from eating their 
shells. 



320 . 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


EXERCISE 23 


Correct the following: 

1. The ladder was lacking a good number of feet from reaching 
the boy. 2. His complexion was of such a color that only people 
with red hair can have, for his hair were red. 3. Miss Jones, 
knowing how to understand the Morse code, received the message. 
4. The extension ladder did not come within a long distance from 
him. 5. Victor Murdock, after twelve years in Congress, is 
bulging with ideas how to run a newspaper. 6. He gave the 
watchman thirty dollars that he should stop the boat. 7. Boswell 
has the ability of holding the reader’s attention. 8. He said for 
us to go at once to our billets. 9. The meaning of this cartoon 
simply shows how discouraged this man became of his former life 
because of drinking and gambling. 10. We don’t want you to 
miss to get a copy. 

Unity 

Unity means oneness. Every part of a sentence must 
be subordinate to one governing idea. 

1. Don’t put into a sentence unconnected or incongruous 
ideas. If there are two main ideas in a sentence, they 
must be related parts of a larger idea. A long sentence 
is unified if it keeps prominent one main point. 

Example. “Miss Jenkins is an excellent stenographer, and will 
make, I believe, a good business manager” is a unified sentence 
because the two main ideas are parts of the larger idea that Miss 
Jenkins has very good business ability. The sentence, “Miss Jenkins 
is an excellent stenographer, and every morning she eats a large 
bowl of oatmeal,” lacks unity because the two ideas don’t belong or 
fit together — are in no way connected — are incongruous. 

Ideas that have so little connection that they may just 
as well be expressed in separate sentences should not be 
crowded into one sentence. 

Example. “What we understand by gentlemanlike feelings he 
knew nothing about; 1 shall give you a curious instance.” Here it 
would be better to stop at about and begin a new sentence; thus, 
“Of this I shall give you a curious instance.” 


THE CORRECT AND EFFECTIVE SENTENCE 321 


EXERCISE 24 

// 

Improve the following sentences. Sometimes subordinating an 
idea will improve the relation and give oneness of ideas, for one main 
idea may have many modifiers. Other sentences will have to be broken 
up into shorter unified sentences. Don’t overwork and. The and 
habit is one of the worst English diseases. 

1. Just as I was turning into Grove Street, I met a dear friend 
and we talked and talked but I did not think of Beauty and he 
must have run away with some other dogs. 2. The Italians 
love the beautiful, but many who cross the ocean are seasick. 

3. The escaped criminal is very dapper, and all persons, especially 
pedestrians, are warned to be on their guard if they meet him. 

4. He earned the Distinguished Service Medal and his wife is a 
Baptist. 5. Often Oliver Twist and some other boys would have 
to go away from the table hungry, so one day Oliver went up to 
the proprietor of the workhouse and asked for more food and when 
the proprietor heard this he turned him out into the street and 
poor Oliver was left penniless and homeless. 6. The ball is an 
inflated one, and the aim of the two sides of five men each is to 
throw the ball into the opponents’ basket and to guard their own 
basket from the throws of the opposing side. 7. The Pied Piper 
rids the town of mice and then the mayor will not give him the 
money he said he would, so he blows on his pipe and all the children 
run from all parts of this town called Brunswick and follow to a 
mountain, but one crippled boy was too slow and the door of the 
mountain closed before he got there. 

2. Avoid tacking a subordinate clause to another subor¬ 
dinate clause. 

(Wrong) Just below were the rapids, which emptied into a pool, 
which was rather shallow. 

(Right) Just below were the rapids, which emptied into a shallow 

pool. 

A clause should not be added after the sentence has 
been apparently brought to a close. 

Example. “As he moralized on these words, they seemed to 


322 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 

soothe the sadness of his heart, which was sometimes subject to 
palpitation.’’ 

This sentence should end at heart , and the remainder ought either 
to be formed into a separate sentence, or to be neatly embodied in 
the main statement. 


EXERCISE 25 

Improve the following sentences. Give the syntax of every subordi¬ 
nate clause used. 

1. The boy gave the dime to a lady who came to beg money 
for her little girl who was sick. 2. There was one instance, how¬ 
ever, of an old man whose name was Egeus, who actually did 
come before Theseus to complain of his daughter Hermia, whom 
he had commanded to marry Demetrius, who refused to obey him 
because she loved another Athenian named Lysander. 3. It is 
a little house the front of which is covered with vines that were 
planted by the tenants who formerly occupied it. 4. During this 
time he constructed a machine for mortising hubs of carriages, 
which proved of great value to his employer, who at the expira¬ 
tion of his apprenticeship offered to establish him in business, 
which Peter declined. 


EXERCISE 26 

Correct the following sentences. How is unity violated in eachf 

1. Mr. Scott of Warren met with a painful accident last week; 
he is now quite an old man. 

2. The king fell from his horse and died two hours after the 
fall, which was occasioned by the horse’s stumbling on a molehill, 
while he was on his return from reviewing his troops. 

3. Unlike the others, she is very fond of water, and if left to 
her own inclinations, w r ould swim all day, having once saved the 
life of a child in Missouri, on the banks of the Mississippi River; 
she can never go near the water where peopie are bathing but that 
she insists upon fetching them out. 

4. Mike is a white and mouse-colored hound, very savage 
from the day he was born, and shows a disposition like his mother 
to be very treacherous, he is inclined to be cross and unruly at 


THE CORRECT AND EFFECTIVE SENTENCE 323 


times, and nothing but the most severe discipline, coupled with 
a certain amount of kindness, ever kept him within bounds. 

5. Shortly after the accident happened he went for a tour on 
the continent, where he saw many wonderful sights, with which he 
was delighted; and throughout his whole travels he was treated with 
every mark of respect, and returned after an absence of two years. 

6. Roderick Dhu is too boastful and confident in his own skill 
and powers; he shows this in throwing down his targe in the duel 
between Fitz-James and himself, which action cost him his life. 

7. After a Sabbath evening service this noble man stood upon 
a chair on a corner of the street and preached in the open air to a 
large audience who crowded the street, and no policeman interfered. 

8. Punch never chases cats, and his license number is 12,267. 

9. Peter Cooper sold the cradle to a peddler, and in 1815 
peace was declared with Great Britain. 

10. As we started back, we heard a faint crackling sound, 
and we stopped and looked about us and saw the grass in a lot 
was on fire, and we ran and put it out with a large tree limb, which 
we scraped along the ground. 

11. The fire engines came dashing down Fulton Street, which 
took its name from the inventor of the steamboat. 

Arrangement 

1. Put the participle close to the word modified. Infin¬ 
itives, gerunds, prepositional phrases, and elliptical clauses 
at the beginning of the sentence should relate in thought 
to the subject. 

(Wrong) Standing on the ferryboat, many ocean liners can 
be seen. {Standing seems to modify liners. The liners are not 
standing on the ferryboat. The problem is to remove the liners from 
the ferryboat and put a person there instead. Or, speaking gram¬ 
matically, we must either put into the sentence some word for stand¬ 
ing to modify or not use the word standing. Such a carelessly used 
participle is called dangling because there is no word in the sentence 
to which it is firmly attached.) 

(Right) A person standing on the ferryboat can see many ocean 
liners. 

(Right) From the ferryboat many ocean liners can be seen. 


324 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


EXERCISE 27 

Correct the following and give the syntax of each 'participle used: 

1. Walking down the street, the post office was seen. 2. Look¬ 
ing out of my window, a runaway horse attracted my attention. 
3.' While walking along Broadway, my attention was attracted 
to a man in Greek costume. 4. A horse stood at the post having 
a beautiful mane and tail. 5. Having carefully prepared my 
lessons, a friend came in. 6. An outline is necessary when pre¬ 
paring to make a speech. 7. When filled, the opening in the 
balloon is closed. 8. Standing on Madison Avenue at Twenty- 
third Street, my attention was called to a large building. 9. Em¬ 
ployed by a firm of conservative men, his methods are always 
repudiated. 10. I mean the apartment in which 1 live with my 
family consisting of four small rooms. 11. Doubleday, Page & 
Company have the most interesting book of the year now pub¬ 
lished. 12. Gliding from the pier, my eyes detected in the dis¬ 
tance the dim outline of the Palisades. 13. While surging through 
the crowd, my attention was attracted by the cry of a woman 
almost alongside of me. 14. After a night of dreams the rising 
sun saw us again on the road. 15. I saw my friend when I was in 
the city at the fair, walking down the main street. 16. As soon 
as frozen, draw off the water and open the ice-cream can. 17. At 
the age of fourteen his father died and left five sons. 18. While 
sitting there, a little dog came up to Riis and licked his face. 
19. Leaving the harbor on an ocean liner, a feeling of joy came 
over me. 20. One day while looking from the window, an organ 
grinder stopped and played in the street below me. 

2. Put other modifiers as close as possible to the words 
modified. Put correlative conjunctions before the parts 
connected. 

The general nearly lost a thousand of his men. (Here nearly 
is placed so as to qualify lost, though it was probably intended to 
qualify a thousand.) 

(Wrong) The eagle saw the lamb while flying. 

(Right) The eagle while flying saw the lamb. 

(Wrong) He neither likes hockey nor football. 

(Right) He likes neither hockey nor football. 


THE CORRECT AND EFFECTIVE SENTENCE 325 


EXERCISE 28 

// 

Correct the following sentences. Then give the syntax of every 
modifier the position of which has been changed. 

1. A reward for the return of the dog will be given of thirty 
dollars. 2. One pupil was asked to write an account of the book 
he had read on the blackboard. 3. She will arrive in Pittsburg on 
Friday, January 15, at the Pennsylvania Station, on the ten thirty 
train. 4. A salesman not only must be courteous but also tactful. 
5. Everybody thought that it was destined to be a great city 
twenty years ago. 6. During the term I not only read the re¬ 
quired books but also eight supplementary books. 7. I lost a 
suitcase on a Flushing Avenue car on March 16 between Chicago 
Avenue and Fresh Pond Station. 8. The steeds maintained a 
shambling gait through the sand that was neither a trot nor a 
lope. 9. I was only at the seashore about a week. 10. 1 learned 
how to start an automobile in a book called The Horseless Age. 

11. Being the only boy, I was almost allowed to do as I liked. 

12. He answered all the questions that were put to him quite 
readily. 13. They broke down both the door of the stable and 
of the cellar. 14. He pulled up the three first plants in the row. 
15. The judge sentenced him to jail for disorderly conduct for 
ten days. 16. Under the circumstances I must admit that you 
acted fairly. 17. Otherwise the paper will be discontinued, with 
much regret, to your address. 18. Not only would it help the 
fourth-year students, but all other students as well. 19. Addison 
points out in this paper that an intelligent man often upholds a 
statement which he knows is absurd because his party makes it. 
20. It is not only disadvantageous to the pupil to be absent from 
school but also to the teacher. 21. We shall be glad to send 
this fascinating volume to you, which should be on the shelves 
of every lover of good literature. 22. Ivanhoe and Treasure 
Island were the two first books I read in high school. 23. I 
thought of going to bed several times but decided to complete 
my work. 24. Either you must return the book or pay for it. 
25. Repeat what you have read with your book closed. 26. The 
picture shows a boy leaning over the fence looking at a pie, which 
is on the window sill, with envious eyes. 


326 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


To, the sign of the infinitive, should not, as a rule, be 
separated from its verb. 

(Poor arrangement) Vincent took time to thoroughly revise the 
composition. 

(Right) Vincent took time to revise thoroughly the composition. 


Parallel Structure 

1. As a rule, use and, but, and other coordinate conjunc¬ 
tions to connect like grammatical elements: two nouns, 
two verbs, two adjectives, two prepositional phrases, 
two participial phrases, or two adjective clauses. 

(Wrong) The boy was made the object of ridicule for wearing a 
red necktie and because he made a queer remark. (In this sentence, 
and connects the phrase for wearing a red necktie and the clause 
because he made a queer remark. Since and may connect two phrases 
or two clauses but not a phrase and clause, change the phrase into a 
clause or the clause into a phrase.) 

(Right) The boy was made the object of ridicule for wearing a 
red necktie and for making a queer remark. 

2. Avoid unnecessary changing of the subject or the 
voice, mood, or tense of the verb. 

Example. “Although he fulfilled his duties honorably, promotion 
came slowly; and it was not until he was forty-three that the rank 
of captain was attained.” Here are four subjects, he, promotion, it, 
rank, with as many different verbs. The principal subject is he, 
and the sentence should be written, “Although he fulfilled his duties 
honorably, he was slowly promoted; and, when he attained the rank 
of captain, he was forty-three.” 


EXERCISE 29 

Explain just what the error in each sentence is and correct the 
sentence. Give the syntax of the coordinate elements. 

1. The abolition of free textbooks has been suggested because 
some pupils use their books carelessly and also because of the 


THE CORRECT AND EFFECTIVE SENTENCE 327 

great expense of free textbooks. 2. I have heard of youths’ 
committing robberies and that the movies gave them the idea 
that it is easy to steal. 3. I have secured unity in the sentence 
by not having more than one main idea, by guarding against too 
many dependent clauses, and no incongruous ideas. 4. No matter 
how bright the future may appear, we should not depend on it, 
but let us act in the present. 5. He decided to visit the gorge; 
and, if he saw one of the party, he would ask for his dog and gun. 

6. Make the first sentence tell how far the paragraph will go, and 
the last sentence should tell how far the paragraph has gone. 

7. The opponents of the government are naturally, and not 
without justification, elated at the failure of the attempt. 8. The 
performances were held in the afternoon because they had no 
good lights and also because of inadequate police protection. 
9. Surely the man in overalls was more of a gentleman than the 
man with gray gloves and who was swinging a cane. 10. He 
went away for a rest and to regain his health. 11. Before the lo¬ 
custs came, the country was a paradise; after their work was done, 
they left only a desert. 12. I have learned this term in speaking 
always to keep to my subject, and do not discuss two topics in 
one paragraph. 13. The chief traits of Bottom are overconfidence 
and he uses words of which he doesn’t know the meaning. 14. The 
teacher showed us the movements of the frog and that its skin is 
slippery. 15. Ichabod was a tall, thin man with a small head 
and having large eyes and an upturned nose. 16. Macaulay’s 
style is clear, rapid, graphic, and apt illustrations. 17. The 
screen spreads the sand on each side of the wheel and thus pre¬ 
venting the car from skidding. 18. This will teach the student 
self-control and to be economical. 19. Helen Keller was taken to 
all the local doctors, and finally they took her to an eminent 
Boston physician. 20. The conductor, a very young man and 
whose number is 324, used profane language in addressing me. 

21. Health requires only three meals a day and to eat frugally. 

22. There are also those with the bodies of animals, and the 
heads are human. 23. In building the paragraph, I used connec¬ 
tives, and all the ideas followed one another in order. 24. A 
white lily was placed in one of the hands of the dead Elaine, and 
in the other she carried a letter to Lancelot. 25. Six days out of 


328 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 

the seven spent on the ocean were among the most pleasant days 
of my life, and now my difficulty is in parting with Mr. and 
Mrs. Frost and the many kind friends whom I have met. 26. By 
adopting this system, the estimator will know that each item is 
complete, and it will be almost impossible to err in the final result. 
27. He is one of the few surviving magistrates of the island of 
which he is a native and has lived on it all his life. 28. He under¬ 
took the preparation of the hall and to provide accommodations 
and refreshments for all who might come. 29. I fancied how these 
ugly suburbs would join with the open fields, and that the city 
would soon reach to the river. 30. The judgments which Johnson 
passed on books were in his own time highly esteemed, and in our 
time people generally treat them with contempt. 31. Of the two 
great creative minds of the latter half of the seventeenth century, 
one produced Paradise Lost, and Pilgrim's Progress was the work 
of the other. 


Connectives 

Use the conjunction that expresses accurately the 
relation of one clause to another. Think what each con¬ 
junction means. And equals plus; and but, minus. 
Don’t use a plus or a minus word to express condition, 
time, cause, or concession. 

(Wrong) It rained hard all day, and I went to school as usual. 
(This sentence isn’t one idea plus another. Although expresses 
accurately the relation between the clauses.) 

(Right) Although it rained hard all day, I went to school as 
usual. 

Use when for time and where for place. In a definition 
use, after is, a noun, not when or where introducing a 
clause. 

(Wrong) A consonant is when the voice or breath is obstructed. 

(Right) A consonant is a sound in which the voice or breath is 
obstructed. > U.v w 

•vv di\ 

Avoid the “and-so habit.” Get rid of the and's and 


THE CORRECT AND EFFECTIVE SENTENCE 329 


so’s by using subordinate clauses or beginning new sen¬ 
tences. Learn to use complex sentences, because English 
made up largely or exclusively of simple and compound 
sentences sounds childish. 

(Poor) You met her last summer; so I shall not describe her. 

(Better) As you met her last summer, I shall not describe her. 


EXERCISE 30 

Improve the following sentences. Show that the conjunctions 
you use express accurately the relation between the ideas. 

1. Jaques was very melancholy but never seemed to laugh at 
jokes. 2. My uncle does not know where we live and is coming 
to visit us. 3. Ethics is where one studies about conduct. 
4. Although a very brave man, Odysseus was not unkind to 
Amphinous. 5. Personification is when an inanimate object is 
given the attributes of a human being. 6. There was always a 
disagreement as to who would do the work, so they decided that 
Captain Jerry should marry to secure a housekeeper for them. 
7. One of the men knew that Oldhame was up to some mischief, 

| so he gave the letter to the governor. 8. While Odysseus was on 
the island, he heard the screaming of maidens, so he rushed to 
find out the cause. 9. A compound sentence is when there are 
two principal clauses. 10. Then he said in a moderate tone, but 
which was audible thirty yards away, “Eve put the thermos bottle 
into the lunch basket.” 11. Four dramatic situations are when 
the lots are drawn at Lantern Yard, when Silas goes to the home 
of Squire Cass, when Godfrey tells Nancy about Eppie, and when 
Godfrey and Nancy go to Silas to ask for Eppie. 12. Democracy 
is where the people rule themselves through their elected rep¬ 
resentatives. 13. Her relatives at home wanted her to return, 
so she came back to America. 14. I gave him an interesting book 
for a present and which cost two dollars. 15. My companions 
had told me that camp life isn’t all sunshine, so I didn’t complain 
about the hard knocks. 16. Polyphemus was a giant, so his cave 
had to be large. 




330 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


EXERCISE 31 

Combine each group of simple sentences into one complex sentence: 

1. He drew a picture of his old home. It showed the house. 
He was born in it. It showed the barns. It showed the orchard. 

2. He reached his house. He gave orders. He was not to be 
disturbed. He went to bed. He tried to sleep. He tried in vain. 

3. Xerxes resolved to invade Greece. He raised an army. 
The army consisted of two millions of men. This was the greatest 
force ever brought into the field. 

4. Shakespeare is buried in the church. He is buried in its 
chancel. It is a large, venerable pile. It is mouldering with age. 
It is richly ornamented. 

5. With great reluctance he opened the front door to leave 
the house. He found himself face to face with a stranger. The 
stranger was a powerful^ built man and had ruddy cheeks. The 
stranger was ascending the steps. 


EXERCISE 32 

Change the compound sentences into complex: 

1. In Washington seven theaters were unsafe because of fire 
hazard or structural weakness, and they were closed by the Fire 
Department. 

2. These inspectors are not very well paid or very expert, and 
they are peculiarly subject to temptation in the way of bribe¬ 
taking. 

3. At an advanced age he was urged to retire on a pension, 
but he preferred to remain an active factor in the busy office. 

4. The man and his employer quarreled, and the young man 
went over to an old building and started in business for himself. 

5. Rip was not fond of work, but because of his wife’s nag¬ 
ging he occasionally did some useful work. 

6. The ferryboat left its slip, and before us lay the wonderful 
skyline of lower New York. 

7. The celebrations were often held in the castle or villa, and 
all the people of the village were invited. 

8. She sent him complete armor, and he went before King 


THE CORRECT AND EFFECTIVE SENTENCE 331 

Arthur and revealed his name and asked to be made a knight in 
secret and Arthur consented. 

9. He suspected a leak in the oiling system, but there was 
never any oil on the garage floor. 

10. About six o’clock everybody was tired; so we decided to 
spend the night in Red Springs. 

11. The examinations are just coming on, and it would not be 
advisable to close school for a day. 

12. The blows were strong enough, but they came from a man 
who struck at random. 

Clearness 

Clearness requires a sentence to be so constructed that 
the meaning is easily and readily apparent to the reader. 
When the meaning is not clear, the sentence is said to be 
obscure; and when there is an uncertainty as to which 
of two different meanings the author intends to convey, 
the sentence is said to be ambiguous. 

Some of the sentences in the exercises under omission, 
arrangement, connectives, and parallel structure are not 
clear. 

1. Find the words that express your ideas. 

EXERCISE 33 

In each of the following sentences decide what the author meant 
to say and then make the idea so clear that no person of fair intelli¬ 
gence can misunderstand: 

1. The umbrella handle was not straight but had a piece cross¬ 
wise to hold to. 2. The umbrella had a black square handle that 
would fold itself when closed. 3. I get the Globe only on 
Thursdays because I cannot afford to. 4. Wamba told Brian the 
opposite direction that they were supposed to go. 5. When the 
coin came from the mint, it was sent to the government. 6. It 
is the picture of the side of a house by a window. 7. flhe house 
was located in the middle of the street, 8. The umbrella had a 


332 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


new handle which was shaped like l. 9. The library has two 
large windows, on both sides of the door. 10. Go straight ahead 
till you come to the monument, then turn, and turn to the right 
at the next crossroad. 

2. Do not use a pronoun if there can be any doubt 
about its antecedent. Rewrite the sentence. Often a 
change to direct discourse makes the meaning clear. 

(Wrong) Jack asked his father how old he was. 

(Right) Jack said to his father, “How old are you?” 

(Right) Jack said to his father, “How old am I?” 

Other ways to make the meaning clear are — 

1. Breaking up the sentence into shorter ones. 

2. Making one of the nouns singular and the other 
plural. 

3. Supplying the nouns. 

4. Using a synonym instead of the noun. 

Example. “Almost immediately after the accession of Henry VI 
the French king died, and he was proclaimed king of France in 
Paris.” Here he seems to have French king for its antecedent. For 
he substitute Henry of England. 

Ambiguity may sometimes be removed by repeating 
the antecedent of a relative pronoun. 

(Ambiguous) He said that he would not even hear my defense, 
which I had expected. 

(Clear) He said that he would not even hear my defense, a 
refusal which I had expected. 

Do not, as a rule, allow any words to intervene between 
the relative and its antecedent. 

EXERCISE 34 

Correct the following sentences and tell the antecedent of each 
pronoun used: 

1. Below the picture it says “Death.” 2. Last night I lay in 
a gondola on the Grand C anal, drinking it all in, and life never 



THE CORRECT AND EFFECTIVE SENTENCE 333 

seemed so full before. 3. It was moonlight on the Hudson and it 
shone like a thousand diamonds. 4. The sentence lacks force, 
which is caused by using too many words. 5. I saw your adver¬ 
tisement in the World and would like to apply for it. 6. Suffrage 
should be restricted to persons who can read and write because 
it would be a benefit to the country. 7. This pony was George’s 
mother’s, and he was loved dearly by his mother. 8. They were 
bold men who robbed the rich and gave it to the poor. 9. After 
fifty strokes had been given, he cried that the whippers should 
stop as he had a partner in the business and he must have his 
share. 10. A boy working for his father lacks judgment because 
he considers him a mere child. 11. A servant brought in the 
boar’s head with a lemon in his mouth. 12. Richard learned how 
to manufacture candy but disliked it thoroughly. 13. His father 
died when he was four years old. 14. I prefer bookkeeping to 
stenography because it is largely done by women at present. 
15. The farmer went to his neighbor and told him that his cattle 
were in his field. 16. The boy told his master that whatever he 
did he could not please him. 17. May asked her sister if she 
would bring her her thimble, as she wished to make something 
for her mother. 18. When the strangers spoke of the ferocity of 
his dogs, he said they were ill-bred curs. 19. When Julius Caesar 
was lampooned by Catullus, he invited him to a supper and 
treated him with such generous civility that he made him his 
friend ever after. 20. There is a mortgage on the property, which 
will likely cause some trouble. 21. Henrique forced him to his 
knees and beat him till he was out of breath. 22. He bequeathed 
to his brother Alexander the sum of $12,000, to his wife $1000, 
and to his three children $1000 each. 23. A man driving an old 
ox became angry and kicked him, hitting his jawbone with such 
force as to break his leg. 

Force 

* 

1. Use simple, specific, suggestive, vigorous words. 

(Feeble) Gabriel concentrated his thought on the subject. 

(Forceful) “Gabriel meditated, and so deeply that he brought 
small furrows into his forehead by the sheer force of reverie.” 





334 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


Familiar words have more force because we more fully 
and readily realize their meaning; particular and concrete 
terms, because they present to the mind ideas that it 
can easily grasp. 

(Weak) I have neither the necessities of life nor the means of 
procuring them. 

(Stronger) I have neither a crust of bread nor a penny to 
buy one. 

Proverbs and pithy quotations are forceful if they are 
not commonplace and threadbare. 

EXERCISE 35 

Make the sentences more forceful by improving the wording: 

1. They knew that he was false and dishonest. 2. Along the 
coast of the sea are to be found all the delicacies that may be had 
in tropical countries. 3. The ancient structures of Rome naturally 
excite feelings of veneration. 4. In Havana there are modern 
improvements in the mode of living. 5. They sank like metal in 
the mighty waters. 6. Will you die of want in the land which 
your labor has made productive? 7. A very small proportion of 
those who have attempted to solve this problem have succeeded. 
8. The garden was filled with a great variety of flowers. 9. Will 
you look on while the inhabitants (Cossacks) of the north crush 

(tread-foot) your dearest friends (fathers, mothers)? 10. The 

Jewish nation, relying on the teaching of its prophets, looked 
forward to a time when its descendants should be as numerous 
as the stars, when the corn of the earth should be abundant, when 
each man should rest beneath the shade of his own trees, and 
when the instruments of war should be converted to the uses of 
peace. 11. He reached a conclusion without giving the matter 
due consideration (jumped to). 12. People who make very loud 
threats seldom have the heart to carry them out (barking dogs). 

2. Much of the force of a sentence depends on the order 
in which the parts are arranged. 



THE CORRECT AND EFFECTIVE SENTENCE 335 


(1) Put important words in the place where they will 
make the greatest impression. As" a rule, when words 
are placed out of their usual order, they are made more 
emphatic. Hence avoid beginning sentences uniformly with 
the subject. 

Examples. Now is your time. Such a show I never saw before. 

Up flew the price. Great is Diana of the Ephesians. 

(2) End the sentence with an emphatic word. 

(Feeble) This is a question I did not expect, and I must ask 
time to reflect on it. 

(Stronger) This is a question I did not expect, and therefore 
I must ask time for reflection. 

(Weak) It is foolish to run at the sight of a meek cow. 

(More forceful) To run at the sight of a meek cow is foolish. 

(3) Arrange a series as a climax. 

(Feeble) The invading Huns slaughtered helpless women and 
children, carried men into slavery, destroyed trees, houses, and 
churches, and carried off personal property. 

(More forceful) The invading Huns chopped down trees, looted 
and burned houses, bombarded churches, carried able-bodied men 
into slavery, and savagely maimed or slaughtered women and 
children. 


EXERCISE 36 

Change the order of the words whenever by so doing you can 
increase the force. Give a reason for each change. 

1. Dryden possessed, in a preeminent degree, the power of 
reasoning in verse, as we have said. 2. We have prostrated our¬ 
selves at the foot of the throne, we have remonstrated, we have 
petitioned. 3. The Seventh Regiment marched last of all. 4. He 
was indebted for many a good suggestion to her. 5. After working 
hard all day he soon went to sleep, being very tired. 6. Colored 
people are more successfully photographed, as a rule, than white 
people, in the opinion of an experienced artist. 7. A quaint or 
poetic thought appears in every line of it. 8. The man who, 
free from care, has a dollar in his purse is happy. 9. He doubled 


336 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


his fist and looked at it as if he wanted to hit somebody a punch 
with it. 10. We would like dinner immediately, as we must 
resume our journey in an hour if possible. 11. The students of 
the past toiled, explored, constructed for us. 12. He, deserted 
by his friends, was compelled to have recourse to his enemies for 
aid. 13. We will not pretend to guess what our grandchildren 
may think of the character of Lord Byron, as exhibited in his 
poetry. 14. There is little question of his genius. 15. That 
our older writers quoted to excess it would be the blindness of 
partiality to deny. 

3. Strike out unnecessary words. Every word that does 
not add to the meaning of a sentence enfeebles it. Hence 
a sentence is strengthened by rejecting every unnecessary 
clause, phrase, or word. Thus, “Hands off!” is more 
forceful than “Keep your hands off!” “Strange!” is 
stronger than “That is very strange!” 

Strength is generally gained by using brief modes of 
expression; as, 

(1) Omitting words easily supplied; as, “What makes 
ambition virtue? — the sense of honor.” Compare with 
“It is the sense of honor that makes ambition virtue.” 

(2) If possible, expressing in a single word the idea 

contained in a phrases or clause; as, “An intelligible 

book” for “A book that may be easily understood .” 

- * 

(3) Rejecting prefacing or introductory expressions; as, 
“ I think I should be entitled to speak on this subject.” 
“ There is nothing so tiresome as listening to a speaker 
who has no message.” 

Among the violations of terseness are tautology, 
pleonasm, and verbosity. 

(1) Tautology is the fault of saying again in other words 
what has just been said; as, false misrepresentation. 

What might appear to be tautology by a strict rendering 
of the rule is allowable — 


THE CORRECT AND EFFECTIVE SENTENCE 337 


a. When one word does not express the full sense 
intended; as, part and parcel, ways and means. 

b. In some idioms; as, 

The head and front of his offending. 

He ruled with might and main. 

c. In strong passion; as, 

I am astonished, I am shocked, to hear such principles confessed. 

(2) Pleonasm consists in the addition of useless words. 

Examples. They returned back again to the same city from whence 
they came forth. Throughout his whole career. 

(3) Verbosity consists in a diffuse mode of expression 
which so pervades the sentence that the only remedy is 
to recast the whole in fewer words. 

Example. She regrets that the multiplicity of her engagements 
precludes the possibility of her accepting your polite invitation. 

Prolixity, a form of verbosity, consists in enumerating 
unimportant or obvious particulars that might have been 
left to the reader to supply. 

(Prolix) On receiving the news, he arose from his chair, put on 
his coat and hat, took his umbrella, went downstairs, walked to 
the railroad station, bought a ticket for the city, and boarded the 
eleven o’clock train. 

(Better) On receiving the news, he started for the city by the 
eleven o’clock train. 


EXERCISE 37 

Strike out the unnecessary words: 

1. Inclosed you will please find a recommendation from my 
shop teacher. 2. In reply to your advertisement in the New 
York Times for artificial-flower makers, I beg leave to apply for 
the position. 3. I wish to announce that I have not yet received 
the shoes I ordered last week. 4. My subject is an interesting one 
in which you all will be interested. 5. Why, the cloth was made 




338 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


of silk. 6. Jim was very nervous and he did nothing else but 
talk of the race. 7. I have had no experience as yet. 8. A large 
reward of one hundred dollars will be given to the finder of the 
child. 9. Roosevelt wrote an autobiography of his life. 10. The 
high school is only one block away from the railroad station. 
11. His clothes were of a seedy black, and very much worn; and 
a silk handkerchief was twisted around his neck, and he had no 
collar, and his shirt was wrinkled and soiled. 12. You are wel¬ 
come. 13. I hope that you may be very successful. 14. Let him 
who sees any chance to save himself take advantage of his oppor¬ 
tunity. 15. Speech about a man’s self ought to be seldom used, 
and it ought to be well chosen. 16. The different departments 
of science and of art mutually reflect light on one another. 17. He 
has arrived at the final completion of his work. 18. If a pupil 
fails, the taxpayers must again pay for his repeating the subject. 

19. It was said that two eagles sent forth by Jupiter, one from the 
east and one from the west, met at Delphi at the same time. 

20. During the time of peace Napoleon once more returned back 
to France. 21. There is no doubt that he deserved the reprimand. 
22. The house was crowded with a very large audience. 23. They 
told us stories about what they had experienced in Japan. 24. On 
arriving at the station, he stepped from the train, looked about 
for a cab, hired one, got into it, gave the driver his address, and 
reached his house without accident. 25. Myra, who was a new 
beginner, felt shy about taking the new position to which she had 
just been appointed. 26. If men of eminence receive reproaches 
which they do not deserve, they likewise receive praises which 
are not due to them. 27. There is no sense at all in the sentence. 
28. They formed a college alumni association composed of former 
graduates. 

4. Vary the sentence structure. Use declarative, im¬ 
perative, interrogative, and exclamatory sentences; short 
and long sentences; simple, complex, and compound sen¬ 
tences; and loose, periodic, and balanced sentences. Avoid 
beginning sentence after sentence with he, then, after this, 
this, these, or there. 


THE CORRECT AND EFFECTIVE SENTENCE 339 

A periodic sentence is one which makes complete sense 
only at the end. 

At last, after hard fighting and prodigious displays of valor the 
battle was won. 

The same day, on the American lines, two attacks, one in Alsace 
and another at Verdun, were made. 

A loose sentence is one which may be brought to a close 
at one or more places and still be complete in sense. 

The battle was won | at last | after hard fighting | and prodigious 
displays of valor. 

Two attacks were made [ on the American lines | the same day, | 
one in Alsace and another at Verdun. 

In these examples we may stop at the several places 
marked and have complete sense. 

A balanced sentence is one which contains two clauses 
that are similar in form and either parallel or contrasted 
in meaning. 

A wise son maketh a glad father, but a foolish son is the heaviness 
of his mother. 

Advantages of each. Each of these kinds of sentences 
has its advantages. Short sentences are more easily under¬ 
stood, and, if introduced after a number of long ones, 
give sprightliness and animation, as well as relieve the 
monotony. If, however, many short, choppy sentences 
are used together, the composition sounds like a primer. 
Long sentences, on the other hand, afford greater scope 
for the addition of qualifying details and for the expansion 
of the main thought.' The loose sentence is simpler and 
clearer than the periodic. Because the periodic structure 
keeps the mind on the stretch until the last word is 
reached, it makes a deep impression. An occasional 
interrogation, exclamation, or command adds vigor and 
life. “Who is equal to him?” is livelier than “He has no 
equal.” “How beautiful!” is stronger than “This is 


340 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


beautiful.” As the continuous use of any one type pro¬ 
duces monotony, the best rule that can be given is to 
study variety. 

EXERCISE 38 

Change each loose sentence into one or more 'periodic sentences: 

1. We welcome you to the blessings of good government and 
liberty. 2. The waves rolled over-his head and threatened to 
drown him, but he reached the shore in safety. 3. Olivia would 
be drawn as an Amazon sitting upon a bank of flowers, dressed 
in a green joseph richly laced with gold, and holding a whip in 
her hand. 4. 1 should stop here to discuss for what teams coach¬ 
ing is, or is not, allowable, but time is too short. 5. A history 
that does not serve this purpose would be perfectly useless, though 
it might be filled with battles and commotions. 6. Elsewhere 
we publish an address by President Lowell, in which he discusses 
briefly and pertinently the main issues confronting our educational 
institutions. 7. The public interest in football, as a spectacle, 
has become general over the country, and has increased markedly 
since the war. 

EXERCISE 39 

Construct six balanced sentences containing statements about 
promising and performing, wisdom and folly, wit and humor, 
reading and writing, summer and winter, pride and humility, 
knowledge and ignorance, reward and penalty, France and Eng¬ 
land, history and mathematics, Shakespeare and Milton, Irving 
and Goldsmith, Washington and Lincoln, baseball and basketball, 
or other topics. 

EXERCISE 40 

Make these sentences more forcef ul. Give a reason for each change. 

1. There are here many goodly creatures. 2. The scenes of 
my childhood are dear to my heart. 3. He commanded them to 
fix bayonets and charge. 4. As I previously remarked, I say 
again. 5. The sentence is full of the greatest number of mistakes. 


THE CORRECT AND EFFECTIVE SENTENCE 341 


6. The President holds the executive power of the land, but the 
legislative power is vested in Congress. 7. On their journey to 
the Pacific coast, they passed through Detroit, Chicago, and 
Victoria; returning home again the next year by the same road, 
they passed through the same cities. 8. It is only in novels and 
on. tombstones that we meet with people who are indulgent to 
the faults of others and do not look with mercy on their own. 

9. Those who are habitually silent by disposition and morose 
are less liable and open to the fault of exaggeration than those who 
are habitually fond of talking and of a pleasant disposition. 

10. The lake is very grand and inspiring when rough, but very 
beautiful when calm. (Make exclamatory.) 11. In the Attic 
commonwealth it was the privilege and birthright of every citizen 
and poet to rail aloud and in public. 12. I have got a cold to¬ 
gether with a fever. 13. He had been false to his God, to his 
conscience, to his mother. 14. The soldier, in order to attend to 
his duties, forsook friends, wealth, pleasure. 15. Such was the 
general demand for a second rendition of the oratorio that it was 
repeated again on June 3 following. 16. A classical high school 
educates the head only, but in a vocational high school attention 
is paid to the hands as well as the head. 17. This plan will extend 
the day two hours longer. 18. In the event of your doing me the 
honor to select me for consideration in connection with the posi¬ 
tion, I can furnish you with satisfactory testimonials as to char¬ 
acter. 19. Next to seeing you is the pleasure of seeing your 
handwriting, and hearing from you makes up in a way for my 
not being able to enjoy a chat with you. 20. Military training 
fits men to serve their country when the nation needs defenders 
on the field of battle, teaches concentration, obedience, self-control, 
and alertness, and provides good exercise. 

Sound 

Liquids and round open vowels give ease and softness 
to the sound; as, momentum , lowly, mole, moonlight. 

By cool Siloam’s shady rill 
How fair the lily grows! 

How sweet the breath beneath the hill 
Of Sharon’s dewy rose! 


342 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


To make sentences agreeable to the ear, avoid — 

1. Derivatives from long compounds; as, unsuccessful¬ 
ness, wrongheadedness. 

2. Words that contain vowels of the same, or nearly 
the same sound; as, holily. 

3. A succession of words having the same or a similar 
sound; as, 

The party departed in the early part of the evening. 

4. Harsh consonant combinations; as, disrespect, up by. 

5. A succession of words of the same number of syllables. 
‘‘No species of joy can long delight us ” is more agree¬ 
able to the ear than “No kind of joy can long please 
us. ” 

6. Needless repetition of a word. Use synonyms. 

(Wrong) The flesh was weary, the spirit weary, and I was getting 
weary of the bustling crow r d. 

(Right) The flesh was weary, the spirit faint, and I was getting 
out of humor with the bustling crowd. 

7. Beginning successive words with the same sound or 
sounds; as, 

They had already reached the road that runs round the lake. 

Exceptions. Sometimes the repetition of a w r ord is effective; as, 
Nothing is omitted; nothing is crowded. 

An unpardonable fault, the fault of tediousness, pervades the 
whole of The Faerie Queene. 

Alliteration is often pleasing; as. 

The furrow followed free. 


EXERCISE 41 

Improve the following sentences: 

1. Colonel Dinwiddie left the stable, and Jack was left to 
his own thoughts. 2. It is a folding umbrella and can be folded 
very small. 3. On my way to school I saw some Italians digging 


THE CORRECT AND EFFECTIVE SENTENCE 343 


some holes. 4. If the bag is returned to the office, please return 
it to me. 5. The Metropolitan Building has an immense tower, 
towering seven hundred feet above the sidewalk. 6. The building 
is built beautifully with its massive dome and mighty columns 
to beautify it. 7. I have read a very interesting book, which 
interested me because there is so much interesting action in it. 
8. I can candidly tell you. 9. This difficulty was at last got 
rid of. 10. All men do not seem to have the same mind as this 
man. 11. The principal explained the principle on which his 
decision was based. 12. There will be willing parents who will 
wish to water the seed which I scatter. 13. The colonel ordered 
the subordinate officers to order their troops to come to order. 
14. A few rough logs laid side by side served for a bridge to cross 
on. 15. On approaching the home of his childhood, he saw the 
leaves searing, for winter was nearing, and the birds disappearing. 
16. Everybody knows that that knows anything at all. 17. 
While leaning on a post, he told me that at the military post he 
obtained a post of great honor and trust, in which it w r as his duty 
not only to post the general’s letters, but also to post his private 
ledger. 


Keeping 

1. The different parts of a sentence should correspond 
with one another. 

(Wrong) All proper nouns should begin with a capital. (The 
first part of the sentence is plural, and the latter part singular.) 

(Right) Every proper noun should begin with a capital. 

2. The harshness caused by making two verbs or prepo¬ 
sitions govern the same object should be avoided. 

(Wrong) In the battle he furiously sought to close with, and cut 
down, his rival. 

(Right) In the battle he furiously sought to close wath his rival 
and cut him down. 

3. The same word should not be used at short intervals 
in different senses; as, 

If the show of anything is good for anything, sincerity is better. 


344 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 

EXERCISE 42 

Correct the errors. Give a reason for each change. 

1. All verbs agree with their subject. 2. In the construction 
of the act teacher shall include female as well as male teachers. 
3. The brain needs rest as much, if not more, than the rest of the 
body. 4. He avoided threatening evils and steered the ship of state 
into a safe harbor. 5. In the beginning it was intended that all 
men should marry but one wife. 6. He guided the ship of state 
into the harbor of protection, and saved the country several million 
dollars. 7. They were refused entrance into, and forcibly driven 
from, the house. 8. In a house like this the inmates resemble 
a knight in an enchanted castle. 9. He had sense enough not to 
use that word in that sense. 10. The farmer gave orders to his 
son to order the hired man to put the reaper in good order. 

11. When I was there, there were friends of mine there also. 

12. He was also known to, and visited by, Sheridan. 


REVIEW EXERCISE 

Correct all mistakes. Give a reason for each change. 

1. I am twenty-two years of age and have just been graduated 
from Columbia College, and expect fifteen dollars a week salary 
with an opportunity for advancement. 2. Above the base are 
fluted columns, rising slender and majestic, and whose capitals 
are the handsomest part of the building. 3. While standing on 
the Brooklyn car line near Chicago Avenue, a brown building is 
visible. 4. A college education enables an ambitious jmung man 
to make this old world just a little better by his service to his 
fellow-men, to think more clearly on the issues of the day, and to 
earn a living. 5. The soldiers were only injured a little. 6. He 
is an excellent mechanic, but his nails sometimes need manicuring. 
7. The girl had an unconquerable fear of ghosts, which she couldn’t 
overcome. 8. The objects of the Russian offensive were the de¬ 
feat of von Hindenburg’s army and to capture Berlin. 9. He 
carved the turkey with a sharp knife that didn’t require whetting. 
10. After eating a hearty dinner, our carriages were brought to 
the door. 11. He neither succeeded as a clerk nor as a mechanic 


THE CORRECT AND EFFECTIVE SENTENCE 345 


12. The enemy is preparing to slaughter our people, devastate 
our fields, burn our houses, and devour our poultry. 13. A teacher 
should not expect a pupil to know what he knows. 14. Poe 
invented the short story, and his home in New York has in it 
many interesting relics. 15. The new beginner quickly snatched 
his hat as soon as the bell rang. 16. Father went out to feed the 
chickens with an umbrella. 17. Odysseus stopped in Sicily, where 
he was captured by Polyphemus, who ate some of his men, who 
were not able to escape from the cave, which was the home of 
the giant. 18. Four weeks ago you sent us $20, leaving a balance 
of $10, for which we thank you. 19. Going home, the wind blew 
a gale. 20. Tiny flakes of snow are falling constantly all the time. 
21. Children in ragged clothes and dirty faces were laying on the 
floor. 22. They again repeated the concert a second time for 
the benefit of the building fund. 23. It was dastardly of him to 
dynamite a building in which women and children were hard at 
work. 24. He had no eyelids and slight eyelashes, and his eyes 
were reddish brown, and he looked as if he wouldn’t be able to go 
to sleep because of the scant covering of his eyes. 25. His resigna¬ 
tion in a national crisis was an act of disloyalty in the opinion of 
many. 26. He gave me a number of flowers of great beauty and 
which have rarely been found in that region. 27. He is of medium 
height, ordinary looking, gray eyes, rather sallow cheeks, a long, 
thin, trailing mustache, and rather uncouth in bis manner. 
28. Rowing on the lake, a severe storm came up, which disabled 
many ships. 29. Blank High School is overcrowded, and it has 
a commercial and a general course. 30. Reading on in the story, 
there is another dog introduced. 31. The dog sat with his parched 
tongue hanging from his mouth feebly wagging his tail. 32. Jack 
Weel, famous as a football player at Yale and who was coach at 
Northwestern for years, has just been signed as athletic mentor 
by Dartmouth. 33. I think if you will follow my directions and 
by inquiring when you are in doubt, you will reach Somerset. 
34. I nearly cried for joy when I read your letter, but as you do 
not know how to reach my house, I will give you the directions 
now. 35. If any one in this class has not read it, I advise them 
to do so. 36. The duel'scene between Sir Andrew and Viola is 
laughable because neither of them want to fight. 37. I consider 


346 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


Macaulay one of the best authors I have ever read for several 
reasons. 38. The scholarship record of girls in high school is as 
high and sometimes higher than that of boys. 39. Rip found his 
dog when he reached home, but he did not know him. 40. His 
selection will depend upon his moral character, the financial con¬ 
dition of the pupil’s family, and he must have an average of over 
seventy-five per cent in all subjects. 41. When Jup does not 
know which eye is his left is a humorous part. 42. Use a colored 
illustration, and also it is wise to have an attractive heading. 43. I 
should like to be a private secretary because you get a higher 
salary than a stenographer, typist, or bookkeeper. 44. Most of 
the English nobles have a country house where they spend much 
of their time. 45. Gray’s Elegy is so popular because of the 
beauty of the language. 46. When he was first arrested, he said 
that he and Benwell came to the outskirts of Woodstock that day 
and he remained there. 47. The appearance of Gurth was more 
sad and sullen than Wamba. 48. The doctor answered after a 
pause for a moment, and rubbing his head at the same time, that 
it was the only thing he could do. 49. He rode, not a mule, like 
his companion, but a strong hackney horse. 50. You have already 
been informed of the sale of Ford’s Theater, where Lincoln was 
assassinated, for religious purposes. 51. We played croquet in 
the morning; we played lawn tennis in the afternoon; and we 
played chess in the evening. 52. He fell forward suddenly one 
day while gardening with his head in a bed of mignonette and 
was carried into the house. 53. The best possible way to learn 
geography would probably be to travel through the country; 
perhaps the next best way is b}^ studying the progress of a war 
in the newspapers with the aid of maps. 54. Why remain in the 
land of snow when you can visit New Orleans and return for 
$31.85, where the magnolia is in bloom? 55. All these tales were 
told in that drowsy tone that men talk in in the dark. 56. The 
author of the Waverley novels was not only remarkable for his tal¬ 
ent; he was equally remarkable for his industry. 57. I heard a 
cobbler who could scarcely put a sole on a shoe say that the soul 
is not immortal, and his sole reason was that he could not believe 
it. 58. Miss Helen Dean, a student of Vassar and who is at home 
on vacation, entertained the K.K. Club last evening. 59. His eyes 














THE CORRECT AND EFFECTIVE SENTENCE 347 


were dark blue and dark eyelashes. 60. In the first part of 
Bulfinch’s Age of Fable, it tells about the curious beliefs the 
Greeks had about the shape of the earth. 61. The boy was 
beyond the reach of the ladders, so four men came with scaling 
ladders. 62. He said to his friend that since he ordered the fruit 
he ought to pay for it. 63. Standing in the park and gazing down 
the street, the flags presented a beautiful appearance. 64. Louisa 
May Alcott was ambitious as her family was very poor. 65. The 
dog had slept with Peg’s father ever since he was a pup. 66. The 
cause of tuberculosis is an improper supply of sunlight, air, and 
dirty surroundings. 67. While oiling the gearing of the machine, his 
hand caught in it, nearly taking it off. 68. You forget that those 
were real dinners where people were hungry and thirsty and you 
met a very miscellaneous company. 69. The polar bears live on 
seal and walrus, crawling stealthily up to the former on the ice 
floes and catching them; while of the walrus only the young are 
caught, for an old walrus is twice as big as Bruin. 70. The critic’s 
definition of literature is different than that of Poe. 


CHAPTER XVII 


CAPITALIZATION 

1. Capitalize proper nouns and adjectives derived from 
proper nouns: George Washington, Spanish , Lloyd George, 
Peter the Great, English. (Don’t capitalize history , physics, 
mathematics, biology.) 

Adjectives that have assumed a general meaning are 
not capitalized: 

biblical, stoic endurance, china eggs, morocco leather, india rubber, 
oriental customs, puritanical, roman type, mercurial, herculean, 
manila paper, palm-beach suit. 

Proper names include: 

(1) Names of political parties, religious sects, nations, 
and races: 

Democrats, Liberals, Republicans, Christian, Protestant, Church 
of England, Baptist, Jew, Christian Science, Catholic, Hungarian, 
Indians, Hottentots. 

(2) Historical events, periods, and documents: 

Washington’s Farewell Address, Middle Ages, Commonwealth, 
Civil War, Battle of Verdun, Peace of Paris, First Amendment, 
Magna Charta, Declaration of Independence. 

(3) Days of the week, months of the year, and holidays 
(but not names of seasons): 

Sunday, Saturday, January, Fourth of July, Labor Day, Washing¬ 
ton’s Birthday, summer, spring, winter, autumn, fall, midsummer, 
midwinter. 

(4) Geographical names and names of buildings: 

Mississippi River, Pacific Ocean, Rocky Mountains, Old World, 
North Pole, Equator, Western Hemisphere, Jupiter, Central Park, 

348 


CAPITALIZATION 349 

Ftfth Avenue, Thirty-fourth Street, White House, Union Square, 
Woolworth Building, Waldorf Hotel, Lancaster County, Juniata 
Township, Seventh Ward, Fourth Congressional District, Swiss 
Republic, New York City, Holy Land. (Some authorities prefer 
Missouri river, Prospect park, Green mountains.) 

Do not capitalize words like river , county, state, city, 
and empire when not used as individual names or parts 
of such names: the island of Cuba , republic of Brazil, 
city of Chicago, state of Iowa. In the Gulf of Mexico, 
Gulf is capitalized because it is part of the name. Mexico 
is not the name. In the city of San Francisco, the name 
is San Francisco. 

(5) The words North, South, East, Northwest when they 
name particular parts of the country. (Do not capitalize 
the adjectives derived from these words.) 

He sailed south from New York to Cuba. 

While traveling through the South and West, he enjoyed southern 
hospitality and western grandeur. 

(6) Titles of organizations and institutions: 

National Security League, American Defense Society, Epworth 
League, Harvard Club, Eastern District High School, Union Pacific 
Railroad, American Book Company, University of Wisconsin, First 
Baptist Church. 

Do not capitalize words like high school, society, club, 
and company unless clearly individual names or parts of 
such names: the high school in Topeka, the company, the 
club, the association. 

(7) Names of governmental bodies and departments: 

Congress, Senate, House of Representatives, Parliament, House 
of Lords, Health Department, Newport Town Council, Education 
Department, Fifty-first Congress, Supreme Court. 

Note that in capitalizing a compound word the second 
word is capitalized only if it is a noun: Thirty-fifth Street, 
ex-President Taft. 


350 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


Do not capitalize inexact or incomplete names: state 
legislature, the board, the council, the department. 

(8) Titles used with proper names and titles of the 
highest governmental offices used without the proper 
names: 

The President, Attorney General Daugherty, Rear Admiral Dewey, 
Major General Wood, King George, the King, James Dawson, Ph.D., 
LL.D. 

The President and the Secretary of War interviewed Colonel 
Roosevelt. 

Among those present were a colonel, a doctor, and Professor 
Simpson. 

Do not capitalize a title preceded by the and followed 
by the name: the apostle Paul, the countess Olivia, the 
duke Orsino. 

Note also this usage: 

James Shannon, governor of Rhode Island. 

Warren G. Harding, president of the United States. 

(9) Words like mother, father, uncle, and grandmother 
when they are not preceded by pronouns or articles: 
my aunt, my grandfather, Cousin Jack, Father. 

2. Capitalize the first word of a complete sentence, 
a quoted sentence, a sentence embodied in another sen¬ 
tence, or a line of poetry. 

A police commissioner of New York City said, “Don’t run across 
streets through heavy traffic. The busiest man I know wastes 
thirty minutes a day; why risk your life to save five seconds 
crossing a street?” 

The question is, Who will be elected? 

3. In titles of books, articles, and compositions capital¬ 
ize the first word and the other principal words: 

The Light That Failed, From the Bottom Up, The Lure of the 
Labrador Wild. Articles, prepositions, and conjunctions are not 
capitalized. 


CAPITALIZATION 


351 


4. Capitalize nouns clearly personified. 

With Milton, Nature was not his first love. 

5. Capitalize names of the Deity and names for the 
Bible and divisions of the Bible: the Almighty, the Scrip¬ 
tures, the Bible, the Pentateuch, Paul’s Epistles, Old Testa- 
ment, Psalms. A pronoun referring to the Supreme Being 
is capitalized only if the reference otherwise might not be 
clear. 

6. In the salutation of a friendly letter capitalize the 
first word and all nouns; in the complimentary close 
capitalize the first word only. 

7. Capitalize the pronoun I and the interjection 0. 

8. Capitalize the first word of each division of a topical 
outline. 

9. Capitalize a word indicating an important division 
of a book or series of books: 

Act I, Vol. IV, Book II, Part VI, No. 7. 

If the division is a minor one, do not use the capital: 
scene 1, article 2, chapter VI, page 69, line 22, section 3, 
paragravh 5. 

EXERCISE 1 

Capitalize the following for use within sentences. Give a reason 
for each capital inserted. 

1 ac t I, scene 2. 2. the age of elizabeth. 3. alexander the 

great. 4. astor hotel. 5. the avon and thames rivers. 6. battle 
of the marne. 7. bible. 8. biblical. 9. Christian. 10. chris¬ 
tianize. 11. the city of milwaukee. 12. the declaration of inde¬ 
pendence. 13. decoration day. 14. vol. IV, book 2, chapter 5, 
page 16, line 25. 15. english. 16. father. 17. my father. 18. first 
methodist church. 19. fifth avenue. 20. fifty-third congress. 
21. forty-second street. 22. fourth of July. 23. general french. 
24. police department. 25. gulf of mexico. 26. high-school 
education. 27. a high school in Chicago. 28. hottentot. 


352 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


29. house of representatives. 30. india rubber. 31. james 
beatty, a.m., ph.d. 32. jewish. 33. cousin james nubel. 
34. labor day. 35. the macmillan company. 36. the middle 
ages. 37. mississippi river. 38. the boston transcript. 39. the 
old world. 40. oriental customs. 41. the pope. 42. presby- 
terians. 43. president harding. 44. the president of the united 
states. 45. w. h. taft, ex-president of the united states. 46. pros¬ 
pect park. 47. a trip through the south. 48. puritanical ideas. 
49. queen victoria. 50. rear admiral dewey. 51. the renaissance. 
52. republicans and democrats. 53. Shakespeare’s as you like it. 
54. the society for the prevention of vice. 55. ex-president 
wilson. 56. the southern states. 57. the state of massachusetts. 
58. stoic endurance. 59. summer. 60. tenth ward. 61. third 
congressional district. 62. tuesday. 63. union league club. 
64. united kingdom. 65. vice president coolidge. 66. west shore 
railroad. 67. the white house. 68. woolworth building. 69. winter. 
70. young people’s society of Christian endeavor. 71. my dear 
young nephew, (salutation). 72. my dear sir: (salutation). 
73. yours truly, (complimentary close). 74. mathematics, Span¬ 
ish, and physics. 75. theodore roosevelt high school. 


EXERCISE 2 

Capitalize the following. Give the reason in each case. 

1. He was nominated for president unanimously by the repub¬ 
lican party convention in 1904. he remained silent until toward 
the close of the campaign, when he delivered his famous blast 
against his opponent, alton b. parker. judge parker had charged 
that national chairman cortelyou, with the president’s knowledge, 
was getting contributions from corporations by reason of his power 
over them as secretary of commerce and labor, the president 
issued a statement putting parker in the ananias club, and it was 
here that he employed his famous “square deal” term, saying, 
“all i ask is a square deal.” 

2. “I should like,” ruskin says in fors clavigera, “to destroy 
and rebuild the houses of parliament, the national gallery, and 
the east end of london; and to destroy, without rebuilding, the 


CAPITALIZATION 353 

new town of edinburgh, the north suburb of geneva, and the city 
of new york.” 

3. Through the courtesy of the department of parks oak trees 
in memory of those who died in the world war were planted in the 
streets adjoining the high school, on Christmas and decoration 
day the high-school pupils under the direction of the memorial 
committee will hang wreaths of flowers on the trees. 

4. I attended several meetings of the resolutions committee, 
presided over by senator glass, of Virginia, and the impression i 
received was that, while they were willing to listen to all the 
important proposals, such as the freedom of ireland, prohibition, 
child welfare, fiume, labor, etc., still this committee was deter¬ 
mined to put through the administration platform, which they 
finally succeeded in doing, regardless of the opposition of william 
jennings bryan and w. bourke cockran. 


CHAPTER XVIII 


PUNCTUATION 

Punctuation is a method of making clear the construc¬ 
tion of a sentence. Hence a writer should understand the 
grammatical structure of his sentence and then punctuate 
so as to show it. 


Period 

1. The period is used after imperative and declarative 
sentences. 

Every position must be held to the last man. There must be 
no retirement. 

2. The period is used after abbreviations; as, a.m., Pa. 
Do not use a period after per cent or Roman numerals 

in a sentence. 


Comma 

1. Use the comma to separate expressions in a series. 

When in a series of three or more items and is used 
between the last two only, most reputable publishers use 
a comma before and. 

There is no substitute for thorough-going, ardent, and sincere 
earnestness. 

Verdun, Jutland Reef, the Somme, and the Marne were four 
important battles of the war. 

If I cannot correspond with you, if I cannot learn your mind, if 
1 cannot cooperate with you, I cannot be your friend. 

When all the conjunctions are used, no comma is required 
unless the expressions are long. 

354 


PUNCTUATION 


355 


He is brave and courteous and generous. 

He was not rich enough to give the boy a suitable money reward, 
ftnd therefore offered to teach him the elements of telegraphy. 

In the word group little red hen , no comma is used 
because little modifies red hen. In a solid gold scarfpin, 
solid qualifies gold pin. In his puny right hand, puny 
modifies the complex idea right hand. 

2. Use the comma to set off words in direct address, 
appositives, and parenthetical expressions. 

John, what is your answer? 

Cheerfulness is health; the opposite, melancholy, is disease. 

The American fruit grower has not, however, lost sight of the 
fact that he is a merchant. 

Note that to set off means for expressions within the 
sentence two commas. Two commas or none is the watch¬ 
word. 

The comma, as a rule, is not used to set off also, perhaps, 
indeed, therefore , of course , at least, in fact, nevertheless, 
likewise, and other parenthetical expressions that do not 
require a pause in reading. 

The comma is not used to set off very closely connected 
appositives: my uncle Jack, the orator Burke, the apostle 
Paul, he himself, the year 1920, my friend Jamison. . 

3. The comma is used to set off a short direct quotation. 

“Why, Silver,” said the captain, “if you had pleased to be an 
honest man, you might have been sitting in your own galley.” 

4. The comma is used to take the place of an omitted 
word. 

General Haig was the commander of the English; General Petain, 
of the French; and General Pershing, of the Americans. 

We respect deeds; they, words. 

5. Use a comma after an introductory phrase containing 
a verb and after an adverbial clause preceding the modified 
clause. 


356 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


The comma may be omitted after the introductory 
clause or participial or infinitive phrase if the word-group 
is very short and the thought connection close. The 
comma may be used after a long introductory prepositional 
phrase. 

(Right) When he reached home he found the telegram. 

(Right) When he reached home, he found the telegram. 

When a man is wrong and won’t admit it, he always gets angry. 

If you want to live and keep well, you must eat proper food. 

To punctuate correctly, one must know a phrase from a clause. 

Having hoed the potatoes and cabbage, Murray hastened into the 
woods to look for a cardinal or scarlet tanager. 

6. Use the comma to set off nonessential phrases and 
clauses. If the omission of the subordinate clause would 
change the meaning of the principal clause or destroy its 
sense, the clause is essential, and no comma is required. 

Essential Phrases and Clauses 

The French boy who does not master the few fundamentals of speech 
and writing is an object of pity. 

Any one feeding or annoying the animals will be fined. 

Never insert a comma unless you know a reason for using it. 

Stay at home this evening till I call for you. 

“The French boy is an object of pity” is not sensible. 
The clause “who does not master the few fundamentals 
of speech and writing” is essential to the sense of the 
principal clause. Likewise “Any one will be fined” and 
“Never insert a comma” do not make sense without the 
modifiers. Although the clause “Stay at home this eve¬ 
ning” makes sense, its meaning is changed by the addition 
of the subordinate clause. 

Nonessential Phrases and Clauses 

The italicized phrases and clauses in the following 


PUNCTUATION 357 

sentences are nonessential because their omission does 
not change the sense of the principal clauses: 

There was a bond of mutual confidence and affection between us, 
which grew stronger and stronger as the months passed. 

I had the pleasure of meeting Marshal Foch, whose manner is 
direct and simple. 

I shall support him, for peace and prosperity depend upon his 
election. 

The beaver, once widely distributed over the United States, has been 
nearly exterminated. 


EXERCISE 

Classify the phrases and subordinate clauses as essential and 
nonessential, give a reason in each case, and punctuate the sentences. 
It will help you to remember that an essential clause or phrase com¬ 
monly tells which one or ones or which kind and a nonessential 
modifier gives additional information. 

1. Any boy who has brains can learn to punctuate correctly. 
2. Mary Rafton who is in the tenth-year English class seldom 
makes a mistake in punctuation. 3. Paris which is the most 
beautiful city in France is the world’s fashion center. 4. The 
Newport which is located in Pennsylvania has a variety of flour¬ 
ishing industries. 5. Charles Thomas running to catch a car 
stumbled and fell. 6. A fat man running to catch a car is likely 
to injure his heart. 7. A permanent home for raccoons has been 
established near the southern end of the bear dens where its 
inmates will be near their relatives. 8. I wonder where he is 
going. 9. Be sure to visit Healthland where you will find plenty 
of fresh air, sparkling drinking water, and pure milk. 10. Union 
painters never work on a job where a spraying machine is used. 

11. I lay down on the grass where for nine hours I slept soundly. 

12. The next day we reached San Francisco which is the natural 
outlet for the products of the valley of California. 

7. As a rule, use the comma between the parts of a 
compound sentence if they are joined by and, but, or, 
nor, or for. • 


358 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


Man was made to be active, and he is never so happy as when 
he is so. 

Experience keeps a dear school, but fools will learn in no other. 

Exception. “His country called and he went.” No comma is 
required because the clauses are short and closely connected in sense. 

8. The comma is used to separate two proper nouns, 
two numbers, or two identical or very similar words. 

To Thompson, Lincoln seemed the greatest figure in American 
history. 

On April 7, 65, 70, or perhaps 80 men enrolled. 

Whatever is, is right. 

9. The comma is used to set off the items of a date 
or an address. 

On March 4, 1865, Lincoln delivered his Second Inaugural. 

On Fourth Street, Williamsport, Pennsylvania, there are many 
well-kept lawns. 

10. Use the comma before and after etc., and after the 
salutation of a friendly letter, the complimentary close 
of a letter, and yes or no when not a complete answer. 

Yes, a market is a public place where potatoes, beans, corn, etc., 
are offered for sale. 

11. The comma is used to set off a contrasting expression 
introduced by not. 

The sword is honorable, not as an instrument, but as a symbol of 
self-sacrifice. 

12. In a construction not covered by the preceding rules, 
a comma may be necessary to prevent misreading. 

For, a moment later I saw my mistake. 

The night before, we bought a tent to take with us. 

To the wise, youth is a time for training. 



PUNCTUATION 


359 


EXERCISE 

Insert necessary commas and give the rule for each comma used: 

1. With our back to the wall and believing in the justice of 
our cause each of us must fight to the end. 2. To the Ladies is 
a bright clean mixture of human nature caricature common sense 
and satire. 3. The movie scenario as a rule reflects life as it is 
seen by the movie writer and movie director neither of whom 
knows anything about the life of Newport society people and 
Wall Street magnates. 4. In the second inning Johnny Gooch 
the Pittsburg catcher tried to dodge one of Bill Ryan’s curves 
and couldn’t get out of the way fast enough. 5. After the game 
Cooper said Oh yes Groh if the Pirates keep on in their form of 
the last few days Barney Dreyfuss can start building those world’s 
series stands. 6. In the first place let us discuss the sun which 
is 93,000,000 miles from the earth. 7. The first line is well written 
but the second line has a vague allusion to trees. 8. To obtain 
a first-class college education he was willing to make sacrifices. 
9. On December 10 1922 in Louisville Kentucky John Thornton 
said “Truth like gold shines brighter by collision.” 10. All classes 
high and low rich and poor have the same right. 11. Having- 
frowned upon the restless Bob the old gentleman began to read 
the letter. 12. It is easy Mrs. Dial for you who have always as 
every one knows set yourself above me to despise and persecute 
me. 13. He was astonished at the eccentric not to say extraordin¬ 
ary behavior of his companions. 14. Full instructions are given 
for the construction of various wireless receiving sets but the 
beginner is advised to experiment first with the simplei ones. 
15. In the valley below the people looked like pygmies. 

Semicolon 

1. The semicolon is used between the members of a 
compound sentence when they are not closely connectc d. 
The semicolon is required when the parts aie both long 
and subdivided by commas, when no conjunction is used, 
or when the connecting word is mbreover, consequently, 
so, thus, hence, besides, therefore, also, then, nevertheless, 
indeed, still, or a similar word. 


360 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


Caesar was dead; hence Rome was in confusion. 

Mr. Sack will probably reach New York about noon today; but, 
if he is unavoidably detained in Washington, you will excuse him. 

Property can be paid for; the lives of peaceful and innocent 
people cannot be. 

My left has been rolled up; my right has been driven in; there¬ 
fore I have ordered an advance along my center. 

2. The semicolon is used to separate the items of an 
enumeration if they are long or subdivided by commas. 

For further information about my character, ability, and training, 
apply to any of these: Reverend H. B. Jackson, Mineola, New York; 
Professor J. W. Inglis, Ithaca, New York; Mr. J. D. Pichon, Forest 
Hills, New York. 


Colon 

1. The colon is used to introduce a list, an illustration, 
or a long or formal quotation or statement. If such 
introducing word or word-group as this, thus, as follows, 
or these words is used, the colon follows it. 

Roosevelt began his speech as follows: “A hundred and forty-one 
years ago today, the United States became a nation.” 

A part of speech is a group of words all of which have the same 
use in speech and writing: noun, pronoun, verb, adjective, adverb, 
preposition, conjunction, and interjection. 

The following articles are to be added to the free list: hay, lime, 
malt, bath bricks, agricultural implements, and bark for tanning 
purposes. 

The parts of speech are noun, pronoun, verb, adjective, adverb, 
preposition, conjunction, and interjection. (Note that the colon is 
not used if the list follows are.) 

2. Use the colon after the salutation of a business letter. 

Interrogation Point 

The interrogation point is used after a direct question. 

What is the proper culture of celery? 


PUNCTUATION 3G1 

The interrogation point is not used after an indirect 
question. 

He asked what the proper culture of celery is. 

A period is used after a request courteously worded in 
interrogative form. 

Will you please hand in the report before nine o’clock tomorrow 
morning. 

Exclamation Point 

The exclamation point is used to mark an expression of 
strong emotion. 

Three cheers for the President! 

Oh, what a wreck! (0 is used in direct address and is never 
followed by an exclamation point; as, “O John, why did you torment 
the dog?”) 

Dash 

1. The dash is used to indicate a sudden change in 
sense or construction. 

And, as for money — don’t you remember the old saying, “Enough 
is as good as a feast”? 

2. Dashes may be used to set off parenthetical matter. 

Our club has this term fallen behind last term’s record — I shall 
quote the exact figures of the treasurer — $1.75 on dues, $8.45 on 
the entertainments, and $6.84 on club papers. 

3. The dash is used before a word that sums up pre¬ 
ceding particulars. 

Tears, prayers, supplications — none of these moved him. 

The dash is seldom used with any punctuation mark 
except a period. 

Quotation Marks 

Quotation marks are used to inclose words that are 
the exact language of some other person. 


362 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


“So far as man is concerned,” he said, “a thousand coyotes 
would as easily be put to flight as one.” 

Single marks surround a quotation within a quotation. 

Benjamin Franklin said, “It requires a good, strong man to say, 
‘I was mistaken, and am sorry.’” 

The quotation mark always follows the period or the 
comma. 

Other punctuation marks should be placed inside the 
quotation marks only if part of the quotation. 

He said, “What do you want here?” 

Will you say to him, “Come at once”? 

When two or more paragraphs are quoted, place quota¬ 
tion marks at the beginning of each paragraph and at the 
end of the last paragraph. 

Titles of books, plays, and articles may be inclosed in 
quotation marks. In print they are usually italicized. 


Parentheses 

Parentheses are used to inclose some incidental remark 
that does not affect the structure of the sentence. 

1 told him (and who would not?) just what I thought. 

Brackets 

Brackets surround words inserted in an article or speech 
by a reporter or editor. 

Mr. Fess. The Chair rather gets me on that question. [Laughter.] 
I did not rise — [Cries of “Vote!” “Vote!”] 

Apostrophe 

The apostrophe is used to denote possession, to take the 
place of an omitted letter, and to form the plural of letters, 
figures, and signs. 

John’s brother makes neat b’s, l’s, +’s, and 6’s. 

He knows you’re right and he doesn’t care. 


PUNCTUATION 363 

The Possessive 

To form the possessive singular of a noun, add ’s to 
the nominative: 

Fox’s, James’s, enemy’s, lady’s, policeman’s. 

Exception. Words of two or more syllables ending in s or 
an s sound and not accented on the last syllable may take the 
apostrophe only; as, conscience' sake , goodness' sake , righteousness' 
sake. 

To form the possessive plural of a noun, first write the 
nominative plural. If the nominative plural does not end 
in s, add ’s; if the nominative plural ends in s, add the 
apostrophe only. 

Nominative plural: 

Policemen, Joneses, mice, enemies, governors of New York. 

Possessive plural: 

Policemen’s, Joneses’, mice’s, enemies’, governors of New York’s. 

The possessive case of a noun or an adjective pronoun 
is always spelled with an apostrophe; the possessive case 
of a personal pronoun, never: his, its, hers, theirs. 

The possessive sign is always at the end of the name: 
son-in-law’s. 

When two or more nouns qualify the same noun, only 
the last takes the possessive form if the possession is 
common; but all take it if the possession is individual. 
“A, B, and C’s shares are as 6, 3, 9” is evidently wrong, 
as each has a share. It should read, “A’s, B’s, and C’s 
shares are as 6, 3, 9.'’ 


EXERCISE 

Write the possessive singular, and the possessive plural if the 
word has a plural: 

Alley, ally, anybody, attorney-at-law, bathhouse, board of 
education, Burns, chief of police, child, commander-in-chief, 


364 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


court-martial, deer, Dickens, donkey, editor-in-chief, father-in- 
law, fly, fox, goddess, it, Keats, king of England, knight-templar, 
lady, louse, major general, man, man-of-war, manservant, mouse¬ 
trap, nobody else, Norman, officer, one, potato, secretary of 
state, sheep, somebody, Murphy, spoonful, trout, you, who, 
whoever, woman, woman-servant, postmaster general. 

Miscellaneous Examples 

Notice the punctuation of the following: 

1. MS. 

2. 5,647,982. 

3. August 3, 1914 — November 11, 1918. 

4. Meet me at 8.15 p.m. 

5. Look up Exodus 2:6-10. 

6. That’s good advice, isn’t it? 

7. An essential modifier limits the word modified; that is, 
it makes a general word more specific in its application. 

8. A noun is a name; as, John, horse, boy. 

9. There are two particularly valuable war books; namely, 
My Four Years in Germany and Fighting for Peace. 

10. I have read many autobiographies, such as The Ameri¬ 
canization of Edward Bok and The Making of an American. 

11. Resolved, That the committee be empowered to have a 
bulletin board made. 

12. John Campbell, A.M., Ph.D. 

13. There being no objection, the Senate proceeded to consider 
the bill. 

14. The ounce, or snow leopard, is rare and beautiful. 

EXERCISE 

Give the syntax of phrases and clauses, or analyze or diagram 
the following sentences. Give the rule for every punctuation mark 
except a period at the end of a sentence. 

1. Shells fell in the city, and split the darkness of the heavens 
in the early night hours. 2. Meat has always been considered 
the best tissue or flesh building food, and for this reason people 


PUNCTUATION 


365 


have always eaten it a great deal. 3. Don’t be satisfied with one; 
buy as many as you can. 4. Open your purse and your mouth ' 
cautiously; and your stock of wealth and wisdom shall, at least 
in repute, be great. 5. Then he muttered, “Number one — fire!” 
“Number one — fire!” repeated the telephonist. Dead silence, 
and then the word came up, “Number one fired, sir.” 6. There 
is, however, a limit at which forbearance ceases to be a virtue. 
7. When you see a crime committed or observe a person acting 
very suspiciously, it is your duty to notify the police. 8. The 
soul of a man is a garden where, as he sows, so shall he reap. If 
ye would gather roses, do not sow rotten seeds. 9. True eloquence 
consists in saying all that should be, not all that could be said. 

10. Two old men,* dragging a heavy bundle of household goods 
between them, abandoned it in the street and fled screaming. 

11. Her soul was noble — in her own opinion. 12. Word came 
down the line: “Counter-attack against the Ninth Regiment, 
and jolly well beaten off too.” 13. The word that may be used 
as follows: first, as a relative pronoun; second, as an adjective; 
third, as a subordinate conjunction. 14. Our school, which 
stands on Fourth Avenue, is overcrowded. 15. Yes, the speaker 
is to be Jeremiah Simpson, D.D. 16. Dr. Wiley says, “In cured 
meats the problem is much easier, as ham, bacon, shoulder, etc., 
may be kept indefinitely.” 17. War is the law of violence; peace, 
the law of love. 18. Looking down into Linden Park from the 
north, we see a lake. 19. Uriah’s hair, which was red, was cropped 
close to his head. 20. It is the guilt, not the scaffold, which con¬ 
stitutes the shame. 21. For several days we wandered through 
the forest primeval, and at last discovered the lake for which we 
had been searching. 22. Just as Ruth came to the bat in the 
fourth inning — look at that dare-devil airman. 23. Conceit is to 
nature what paint is to beauty; it is not only needless, but impairs 
what it should improve. 24. Julius Caesar opens with the sentence: 

“ Hence! home, you idle creatures, get you home.” 25. Sentences 
are of three kinds: simple, complex, and compound. 26. \irtue 
is usually, though not necessarily, connected with intelligence; 
vice, with ignorance. 27. I came home from my vacation brown 
and strong, for I spent most of the month in climbing mountains, 
canoeing, swimming, playing golf, and sleeping. 28. The rule 


366 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


may be stated thus: A pronoun agrees with its antecedent in 
number and person. 29. His stage whisper, “I’m suspicious,” 
his request that Schubert write a solo for the piccolo, and his 
ordering his son-in-law, Baron Schober, to bring home his baron’s 
salary every Saturday illustrate the type of humor in the play. 
30. “To Americans,” Conrad exclaims, “one appeals for the 
recognition in the Polish nation of that patriotism, not of the 
flesh, but of the spirit, which has sustained my countrymen so 
well in the critical hours of their history.” 

EXERCISE 

Give the syntax of phrases and clauses, or analyze or diagram 
the following sentences. Punctuate the sentences and give a rule 
for each mark inserted. A few sentences require no further punctuation. 

1. If a man has a job to which a large salary is attached he is 
said to be holding a lucrative position. 2. I was very glad to 
hear that you are coming to visit me soon. 3. In the second 
sentence I have repeated the word government in the third sentence 
I have used the phrase for my part in the fourth sentence I have 
repeated the word trip. 4. My last point is his fearlessness when 
he goes into battle which proves that his nature is not that of a 
weakling. 5. The statement which you made concerning the 
attitude of the government is absolutely wrong. 6. He also uses 
good descriptive words throughout. 7. He uses very few words 
which the average educated person doesn’t understand. 8. He 
noted the men who tried hard but were naturally slow and awk¬ 
ward. 9. What is becoming is honorable and what is honorable 
is becoming. 10. Our chateau lies in the valley between two 
hills so to obtain a clear view of the horizon I hurried to the roof 
with a pair of field glasses. 11. Just as we had seated ourselves 
comfortably in the auditorium Mr Reynolds began a selection 
on the organ but soon the speaker appeared and gave us glimpses 
of Cairo and the Nile. 12. Hope is the mainspring of efficiency 
complacency is its rust. 13. Draw down the blind Jim whispered 
my mother they might come and watch outside. And now said 
she when I had done so we have to get the key off that and whos 
to touch it I should like to know and she gave a kind of sob as she 


PUNCTUATION 


367 


said the words. 14. When buying goods if you are satisfied with 
the price and quality make sure that you get full weight or measure. 
15. As charity covers a multitude of sins before God so does 
politeness before men. 16. Men are born with two eyes but with 
one tongue in order that they should see twice as much as they 
say. 17. A bowl of oatmeal eaten for breakfast will furnish the 
average man with all the heat and energy he will need. 18. Soon 
after Silas forgot all about his money and lived very happily with 
his daughter. 19. No one knew anything about him he had a 
good military record and was considered safe. 20. These are his 
exact words I rise Mr President to ask for information. 21. An 
adverb is a word used to modify a verb adjective or another 
adverb as rapidly often completely and altogether. 22. A haber¬ 
dasher sells collars neckties shirts etc. 23. They were the framers 
of the Constitution which has endured more than a century. 
24. Captains Ellis and Garey say A mans training and courage 
his clear eye and steady nerve his souls blood and iron constitute 
a better defense than steel and iron. 25. He who works will 
be rewarded. 26. For information concerning my intelligence 
industry and honesty apply to Dr J M Jackson principal of Boys 
High School San Francisco California. 27. Just look my friends 
said Gregson what I have discovered. 28. Yes Mrs Simondson 
I stayed in Benares for two weeks. 29. When a vaudevillian 
wants to be exquisitely funny he braids into his line of patter a 
reference to Podunk Oshkosh Kalamazoo Hohokus oi Kankakee. 
30. The Odyssey is I think our required reading for the next 
month. 31. War means murder and destruction peace life and 
plenty. 32. The boy who won the peace medal lives in I hiladclphia 
which is often called the City of Brotherly Love. 33. Columbia 
University which is the largest educational institution in America 
has a school of journalism. 34. Uriahs hair which was cropped 
close to his head was reddish brown. 35. On Thursday Febru¬ 
ary 24 about four p m I left a black silk umbrella on a car going 
to Auburn. 36. While riding in a Dudley car last week I lost a 
small package. 37. He was respectful not servile to superiors 
and affable not improperly familiar with equals. 38. He who 
sedulously attends pointedly asks calmly speaks coolly answers 
and ceases when he has no more to say is in possession of some of 


368 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


the best requisites of man. 39. He reported the meeting as follows 
I rise for information said a member I am very glad to hear it 
said another near by. 40. The question was thus stated Should 
our national defences be increased? 41. He asked whether our 
national defences should be increased. 42. Man is a strange 
mixture of good and evil even the worst criminal has admirable 
qualities. 43. The membership of the Board of Education was 
made up as follows laborers 2 lawyers 2 business men 3 doctors 2. 
44. A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun as I he she and 
you. 45. During the period May 1 1906 November 4 1907 I 
hardly ever saw but never mind I didnt intend to refer to that 
experience. 46. The word but may be used in four ways as a 
preposition as a conjunction as an adverb as a pronoun. 4/. Cereals 
contain much starch which is a muscle builder. 48. As jmu know 
millions of men were killed in the war. 49. Besides this corpora¬ 
tion offers four per cent interest. 50. Ever since I have spent 
my summers on a farm. 51. If you and Janet can come and see 
us this summer for you know we are always delighted to have you. 

52. As the spring comes on the vegetables will begin to sprout. 

53. The work you do the exercise you take and the thoughts you 
think use up a certain proportion of your body each day. 

54. When the great flood of March 1913 broke over southern 
Ohio cutting off cities from communication with the outside world 
for several days crushing out lives and tearing houses from their 
foundations it created indirectly the most efficient social machine 
which has taken form in any place in America so far as I know. 

55. On those rare years when the Ohio doesnt rise sufficiently to 
drive hundreds of families out of their houses along the river¬ 
front accomplishing incidentally the annual house-cleaning the 
people of Cincinnati feel that they have been deprived of a real 
bit of their rightful inheritance and the family of social workers 
wonder how they can earn their salaries. 56. But the flood of 
1913 went beyond the limits of good taste and tradition. The 
social workers remembering the lean years of no floods rolled up 
their sleeves which means literally that they got into high rubber 
boots and skiffs and went to work. 57. The food supply had to 
be organized and back of the various centers of organization stood 
the whole city glad to do whatever it was asked to do. 58. For 


PUNCTUATION 


369 


many years the social workers of the Queen City representing 
an amazing and to the outsider bewildering complexity of social 
agencies have known one another and mingled with one another 
like a family. 59. The multitude of organizations which they 
represented had overlapped had got into one anothers way had 
expended a startling amount of energy that ought to have been 
conserved. 60. If other mens words may be doubted because of 
the suspicion of partisanship his may not be for he has always 
shown himself to be an apostle of truth as he sees it. 61. The 
insertion of a comma in a tariff bill about forty years ago cost 
the United States government $2000000. The copying clerk by 
carelessly writing fruit, plants instead of fruit-plants placed oranges 
bananas lemons and grapes on the free list until Congress amended 
the law. 


EXERCISE 

Give the rule for every punctuation mark on pages 25, 94 and 
187. Give the syntax of all phrases and subordinate clauses. 


CHAPTER XIX 


THE RIGHT WORD 

Size of vocabulary. The English language includes 
approximately 600,000 words. About half are obsolete 
or technical. Of the remaining 300,000 Shakespeare used 
15,000; Milton, 10,000. The writing vocabulary of the 
average adult is 3,500 words; of the exceptional man or 
woman, 6,000; of the average eighth-grade pupil, 2,100. 
Terman gives the following as standard reading vocabu¬ 
laries: 12 years, 7,200 words; 14 years, 9,000; average 
adult, 11,700; superior adult, 13,500. 

A mark of intelligence and education is the ability 
to understand oral instructions and to get thought from 
the printed page. 

EXERCISE 

The following forty words occur on page 467, volume xxxvii, 
of the World’s Work. How many of the words do you know the 
meaning of f How many can you usef 

Nationalism, radical, flexible, rigid, centralized, suppleness, 
analysis, entities, protracted, reconstruction, culminate, fundamen¬ 
tal, impotence, fratricidal, reversion, unprecedented, self-suf¬ 
ficiency, transition, temporary, cleavage, tranquil, politico-social, 
particularisms, culture, aspiration, dissolution, mutually, rancor, 
keystone, patrimony, amassed, supernational, imperial, universal, 
ultimate, supremacy, bureaucracy, indispensable, self-conscious¬ 
ness, inchoate. 

Vocabulary notebook. Professor Palmer says, “Let any 
one who wants to see himself grow, resolve to adopt two 
new words each week.” One of the best methods of in- 

370 


THE RIGHT WORD 


371 


creasing your vocabulary is by mastering the words you 
meet in your reading. Your notebook should have a part 
of the sentence in which the author uses the word, the 
definition of the word, and its derivation, if this means 
anything to you: 

He was accompanied by a superannuated pointer — 
(super annus ) disqualified by age. 

By learning both the meaning and the use of a word 
and then using it in speech and writing, you add it to 
your reading, writing, and speaking vocabulary. Professor 
Palmer says on this point: “l know that when we use a 
word for the first time, we are startled as if a fire-cracker 
went off in our neighborhood. We look about hastily to 
see if any one has noticed. But finding that no one has, 
we may be emboldened. A word used three times slips 
off the tongue with entire naturalness. Then it is ours 
forever, and with it some phase of life which had been 
lacking hitherto.” 

The dictionary. The dictionary habit is a firm founda¬ 
tion for steady improvement in English both in school and 
out of school. In the use of the dictionary you will save 
time by going slowly. Suppose that for the first time you 
meet in your reading either caprice or capricious. The 
definition of caprice in Webster’s New International Dic¬ 
tionary is an abrupt change in feeling, opinion, or action, 
proceeding from whim or fancy. If after reading this defini¬ 
tion you toss the dictionary aside, you will doubtless 
promptly forget caprice. Instead, notice the pronunciation, 
synonyms, and derivation. Read, under derivation, per¬ 
haps originally a fantastical goat leap, from Latin caper, see 
in imagination an Alpine goat leaping from crag to crag for 
no particular reason; and you can’t forget the word 
caprice. Similarly notice that dilapidated is derived from 
dis (apart) and lapis (stone), and picture a stone house 



372 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


tumbled to the ground. Observe that trivial comes from 
trivium (a place where three roads meet), and then imagine 
the gossipers talking idly at the street corner. 

EXERCISE 

What pictures does a study of the derivation of these words call up? 

Assail, insult, white feather, bias, geranium, pocket handker¬ 
chief, rivals, redeem, posthaste, tantalize, jovial, atlas, phaeton, 
cereal, Philadelphia, composition, nasturtium, barbarian, tribula¬ 
tion, fiasco, relaxation, pioneer. 

EXERCISE 

Pick old words that paint pictures or appeal to the senses: 

1. The sea was molten silver in the shimmer of the morning. 
2. London is a great greyly-overcast, smoke-stained house-wilder¬ 
ness. 3. She is a superb creature, with eyes that flash and smoulder 
under heaps of tangled black hair. 4. By stiff hat we mean the 
tall, stiff chimney pot, otherwise known as the plug hat or the 
stovepipe or the topper. 5. He sported a wide, ferocious, strag¬ 
gling mustache and long eyebrows, under which gleamed little 
fierce eyes. 6. Our expectations are fustian spangled with pinch¬ 
beck. 7. The two officers — one tall, with an interesting face 
and a mustache the color of ripe corn, the other short and sturdy, 
with a hooked nose and thick crop of black, curly hair — ap¬ 
proached the mistress of the house to take their leave. 8. If the 
wind is tempered to the shorn lamb, the hides, or the hearts, of 
some people are toughened to stand the gales of Fate. 9. Not 
to be able to wash, not to be able to sleep, to have to be wet and 
cold for long periods at a stretch, to find mud on your person, in 
your food, to have to stand in mud, see mud, sleep in mud, and to 
continue to smile — that’s what tests courage. 10. He was an 
ill-favored, undersized, gruff sailor of fifty, coarsely hairy, short¬ 
legged, long-armed, resembling an elderly ape. 11. He had the 
look of a dog with a bottle at its tail and wore a coat every rag of 
which was bidding good-day to the rest. 12. The high-pitched, 
nasal voice of the round-eyed, button-nosed, pink-and-white 


THE RIGHT WORD 


373 


typist is heard above the shrill ringing of the telephone, the pound¬ 
ing and stamping of envelopes, and the clicking of racing type¬ 
writers. 13. Like a flash Wallace wheeled and dropped into the 
river. 14. Without a word Thorpe reached forward, seized the 
astonished servant by the collar, yanked him bodily outside the 
door, stepped inside, and strode across the hall. 


EXERCISE 

Bring to class a short story, newspaper write-up, editorial, 
novel, biography, essay, or magazine article with fifteen picture¬ 
making words checked. 

Effective words. Specific words are more effective than 
vague and general ones. As a rule, specific words are 
preferable to such vaguely used adjectives as fine, horrid, 
fierce, awful, nice, grand, lovely, cute, gorgeous, splendid, 
stunning, elegant. Homely words like staik, bleak, sheer, 
roar, prig, wheedle, boor, dolt, haggle, task, hobnob, job, glum, 
and hodgepodge are more expressive than lengthy and 

pretentious ones. 

(General) Even a small contribution will help the poor. 

(More specific) A dollar will buy two loaves of bread, three 
quarts of milk, a pound of oatmeal, and a half pound of butter for 
a starving mother and her two babes. 

(General) Scrooge was miserly. . 

(More specific) Oh! but he was a tightfisted hand at the grind¬ 
stone, Scrooge — a squeezing, crunching, grasping, scraping, clutching, 
covetous old man. — Dickens. 

(General) You have all seen, but see no more the attack and 

repulse with its noise, heroism, and death. 

(More specific) The ground strewed with the dead and the 
dying- the impetuous charge; the steady and successful repulse, 
the loud call to repeated assault; the summoning of all that is 
manly to repeated resistance; a thousand bosoms freely and ear- 
lessly bared in an instant to whatever of terror there may be in 
war and death; — all these you have witnessed, but you witness 

them no more. — II ebster. 

(General) When Blayds dies, his grandchildren change. 


374 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


(More specific) When the second act opens, we know that Blayds 
is dead because his grandchildren now smoke in the living room and 
wear black clothes. 

(General) If you go to bed early, you will be an ignoramus. 

(More specific) “Go to bed with the chickens if you want the 
brain of a hen.” 


EXERCISE 

In the following sentences substitute more specific or precise words 
for the general or vague expressions. If necessary, use two or more 
sentences for the concrete details. 

1. Treasure Island is an interesting book. 2. Theodore 
Roosevelt was a fine man. 3. The weather during August was 
fierce. 4. He is the ugliest man I ever saw. 5. The gymnasium 
is poorly lighted and equipped. 6. It was a fine debate. 7. His 
speech was poor. 8. His ideas were good, but his delivery was 
awful. 9. The composition is fairly good. 10. The room is most 
attractive. 11. The American soldiers fought bravely at Chateau- 
Thierry. 12. He is a loyal man. 13. On the boat we met an 
especially nice girl and had a grand time. 14. Washington did 
many things for the people of this country. 15. He is a charitable 
man. 16. He is a good citizen. 17. The boy went to the stream 
and began to fish. 18. She sang the solo very well. 19. The 
refreshments were fine. 20. A business girl should be suitably 
dressed. 21. Good manners are valuable. 22. Isn’t her dress 
stunning? 23. We had a nice ride, a great swim, a swell lunch, 
and a lovely walk along the beach. 24. They have bought a splen¬ 
did car with a wonderful engine. 

EXERCISE 

Prepare a list of words to describe or characterize each of the 
following: boy or girl, book, automobile, street, composition, 
brook, river, wave, ocean, storm, tree, day, crowd, room, house, 
and horse. Cross out the commonplace words like large , red, and 
pretty. , 

Example. Air — balmy, chilly, crisp, frosty, exhilarating, invigor¬ 
ating, refreshing, muggy, stimulating, bracing, sultry, foul, moist. 


THE RIGHT WORD 


375 


Triteness. Avoid the shop-worn phrase not now used 
by good writers or speakers. Express the idea in your 
own way. 


EXERCISE 

Substitute simple, vigorous expressions for these hackneyed or 
roundabout phrases: 

1. Social function. 2. 10th inst. 3. At hand. 4. In reply 
to same. 5. Anticipating the favor of a personal interview, I am. 
6. Hoping to see you soon, I remain. 7. Permit me to suggest. 

8. We have carefully noted the contents of your esteemed com¬ 
munication of the 27th ultimo and take pleasure in informing you. 

9. In reply to your advertisement in the New York World, I beg 
leave to apply for the position. 10. Favor with a selection. 11. Do 
justice to a dinner. 12. Applauded to the echo. 13. Downy 
couch. 14. Sumptuous repast. 

As almost half the words in the dictionary are Latin 
derivatives, every one should know at least the most com¬ 
mon Latin prefixes and stems. 

Latin Prefixes 


Prefix 

Meaning 


Example 

Definition 

a, ab 

from 


avert 

turn from 

ad 

to, toward 


attract 

draw to 

ante 

before 


antecedent 

going before 

bi 

two 


biped 

a two-footed 

animal 

circum 

around 


circumnavigate 

to sail around 

con, co 

together, with 

convene 

to come to¬ 
gether 

contra 

against 


contradict 

to speak against 

de 

from, down 


depose 

to put down 

di, dis 

apart, from, 

not 

dishonest 

not honest 

e, ex 

out, out 
from 

of, 

select 

to choose from 

extra 

beyond 


extraordinary 

beyond ordinary 

in 

in, into, not 


insane 

not sane 


37G 

COMPOSITION 

AND RHETORIC 

Prefix 

Meaning 

Example 

Definition 

inter 

between 

interstate 

between states 

non 

not 

non-delivery 

not delivery 

ob 

against, in front 
of 

object 

to throw against 

per 

through, thor¬ 
oughly 

perfect 

thoroughly 

made 

post 

after 

postscript 

written after 

prae 

before 

precede 

to go before 

pro 

for, forward 

pronoun 

for a noun 

re 

back, again 

reconsider 

to consider 
again 

se 

apart 

secede 

to go apart 

sub 

under 

subscribe 

to write under 

super 

above 

supernatural 

-above nature 

trans 

across, beyond 

transgress 

to step beyond 


Some of the prefixes are not readily detected because of 
consonant changes. Ad becomes a(agree), aciaccede), af (affix), 
ag (aggrieve), al(ally), an(annex), ap (append), ar (arrive), 
as (assent). 


Common Latin Verb Roots 


Verb Root 

Meaning ■ 

Example 

Definition 

ago, actum 

do, act, drive 

perform 

act through 

audio, auditum 

hear 

auditor 

one who hears 

capio, captum 

take, seize, hold 

captive 

one taken 

cedo, cessum 

go, yield 

precede 

go before 

credo, creditum 

believe 

credible 

believable 

curro, cursum 

run 

incur 

run into 

do, datum 

give 

data 

facts given 

dico, dictum 

say 

predict 

say before 

duco, ductum 

lead, draw 

induce 

draw in 

facio, factum 

make, do 

proficient 

making forward 

fero, latum 

bear, carry 

differ 

bear apart 

flecto, flexum 

bend 

flexible 

bending 

fluo, fluxum 

flow 

fluent 

flowing 

frango, fractum 

break 

fracture 

a break 

gradior, gressus 

go, walk, step 

progress 

go forward 

jacio, jectum 

throw, cast 

eject 

cast out 

jungo, junctum 

join 

junction 

a joining 


THE RIGHT WO*RD 377 


Verb Root 

Meaning 

Example 

Definition 

lego , ledum 

gather, read, 
choose 

legible 

readable 

loquor, locutus 

speak 

elocution 

a speaking out 

mitto, missum 

send, cast 

remit 

send back 

pello, pulsum 

drive, urge 

expel 

drive out 

pendeo , pensum 

hang, pay 

suspend 

hang under 

pono, positum 

place, put 

postpone 

place after 

porto , portatum 

carry 

import 

carry into 

rurnpo , ruptum 

break 

rupture 

a break 

scribo, scriptum 

write 

scribe 

a writer 

seco, sectum 

cut 

section 

a cutting 

sedeo, sessum 

sit, settle 

session 

a sitting 

sequor, secutus 

follow 

execute 

follow out 

sto, statum 

stand 

distant 

standing apart 

tango , tadum 

touch 

contagion 

touching to¬ 
gether 

traho, tractum 

draw 

attract 

draw to 

venio , ventum 

come 

convene 

come together 

verto , versum 

turn 

avert 

turn aside 

video , visum 

see 

vision 

sight 

voco, vocatum 

call 

vocation 

calling 


EXERCISE 

Show from the derivation how each word has acquired its present 
meaning: 

1. Agent, agile, action, actor, counteract. 2. Audit, audible, 
audience. 3. Capable, capture, except, accept, conception, in¬ 
cipient, anticipate. 4. Cede, antecedent, precede, concede, recede, 
accessible, excess, recess, intercession. 5. Creed, credit, credulous. 
6. Current, recur, incursion, cursory. 7. Addition, extradition, 
dative. 8. Contradict, dictum, dictionary, diction, dictator, 
dictate, dictatorial. 9. Seduce, reducible, aqueduct, introduce, 
educate. 10. Imperfect, faculty, fac-simile, factotum. 11. Cir¬ 
cumference, fertile, prefer, refer, suffer, transfer, pestiferous, 
relative. 12. Deflect, circumflex, inflection. 13. Affluent, efflu¬ 
ence, influence, superfluous, flux. 14. Fragile, fragment, fraction, 
infringe. 15. Digress, transgress, aggression, congress, retrograde, 
gradual. 16. Subject, reject, object, interjection, inject, eject, 




378 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


dejected, conjecture. 17. Adjunct, conjunction, subjunctive, 
juncture. 18. Elect, predilection, lecture, eligible. 19. Loqua¬ 
cious, colloquial, soliloquy, ventriloquist. 20. Transmission, 
intermission, submit, permit, dismiss, missile. 21. Propel, repel, 
repulse, compulsory. 22. Pendulum, expend, impend, propensity. 

23. Exponent, opponent, punctuation, exposition, interposition. 

24. Portable, porter, portfolio, portmanteau, export, insupportable, 
transport, deportment. 25. Bankrupt, interruption, eruption, 
disruption. 26. Circumscribe, describe, inscribe, subscribe, super¬ 
scribe, transcribe, manuscript, postscript, scripture. 27. Sect, 
intersect, dissect, sector. 28. Sedentary, sedate, sediment, super¬ 
sede, sedulous, preside, subside. 29. Persecute, consecutive, 
consequence, sequel. 30. Contrast, statue, stature, armistice, 
obstacle. 31. Tangible, contiguous, contingent, tangent. 32. Dis¬ 
tract, extract, protract, retract, tract. 33. Convenient, intervene, 
revenue, convention, prevent. 34. Advertise, controvert, convert, 
divert. 35. Evident, provident, vista. 36. Convocation, advo¬ 
cate, revocation, vocabulary. 


EXERCISE 


Explain the derivation and meaning of these words: 

Irrevocable, reverse, invent, subtract, status, ingredient, fluency, 
facility, abduction, valedictory, secede, excursion, participate, 
deception, agitate, degrade, infraction, president, sequence, con¬ 
scription, bisect, emit, adjective, repulsive, circumlocution, abrupt, 
opportunity, preposition, eloquent, transpose, abject, report, 
active, manufacture, benediction, influx, accede, intercept, captor, 
secession, discredit, translate, superlative. 


Latin Nouns and Adjectives 




annus, year 
caput, capitis, head 
centum, hundred 
civis, citizen 
cor, cordis, heart 
corpus, corporis, body 
dignus, worthy 


littera, letter 

magnus, major, maximus , great. 


greater, greatest 
manus, hand 
mors, mortis, death 
nomen, nominis, name 
opus, operis, work 




THE RIGHT WORD 


379 


duo, two 
finis, end, limit 
gratus, pleasing, thankful 
lex, legis, law 
lingua, tongue 


pars, partis, part 
pes, pedis, foot 
similis, like 
terra, earth 
via, way 


Common Greek Roots 


astron, star 

autos, oneself 

chronos, time 

graphein, write 

kratos, rule, government 

logos, speech, reason, word, 


metron, measure 


monos, sole, alone 
onoma, name 


pan, all, whole 
pathos, suffering 


philos, friend, lover 


account 


EXERCISE 


Make a list of English words derived from the twenty-three 
Latin nouns and adjectives and from the Greek words. Know the 
meaning of the words listed. 

What is good use? In speech and writing avoid any 
use of a word that is not sanctioned by the practice of 
a large body of educated and intelligent people. A dic¬ 
tionary is not a language lawmaker but a record of the 
practice in speech and writing of intelligent people of the 
present. The New Oxford Dictionary is the best authority 
on good use because its editors have investigated the use 
by many writers of every word in the language. 

Levels of usage. Many people think that an expression 
must be either right or wrong. On the contrary, some 
expressions are both good and bad English. For example, 
lots of people is not good usage in a formal essay but is 
acceptable in informal conversation. The expression is 
colloquial. Baldwin defines colloquial as “used by good 
writers or speakers in conversation, but not in public 
address or writing.” A vulgarism is an expression used 
only by people without cultivation or education. Had 





380 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


ought, ain’t, hain’t, invite (as a noun), kinder (kind of), 
quite some, fix up (dress elegantly), busted, and critter are 
vulgarisms. Fix (repair), back of (behind), phone, photo, 
folks, make (earn, gain), mighty (very), quite a good deal, 
anyhow, quite a little, and lovely {dinner) are recognized 
colloquialisms. 

Slang is the language of a childish or lazy man inas¬ 
much as a few expressions, such as stand in, get by, swell, 
peachy, hot air, cut it out, and get his goat, answer for every 
occasion. The person who uses slang freely needs few 
words and hence stunts his vocabulary. Greenough and 
Kittredge say, “The unchecked and habitual use of slang 
(even polite slang) is deleterious to the mind.” 

Choose the better. We use words to get results. If 
one’s language puts him on the defensive or needs expla¬ 
nation, he is not likely to accomplish his purpose. For 
example, proven is defensible in the sentence: That state¬ 
ment was not proven. Proven is used by Tennyson, Bulwer- 
Lytton, Lowell, Jowett, Thackeray, Spencer, Gladstone, 
Huxley, and Kipling, and is recognized by the New Oxford 
Dictionary and by Webster. Proved, however, needs no 
defense and is the form used by most careful writers and 
speakers. Therefore it is better to avoid proven. 

Faults in Word Choice 

Above. Useful and correct as adjective: “the above statement,” 
“the above paragraph.” Many careful writers prefer 
preceding. 

Accept of. Better to omit the of: “I accept your offer.” 

Affect. Affect is always a verb; effect, commonly a noun. To 
affect is to influence; to effect, to bring about. 

Admittance is correct for allowing one to enter a building or loca¬ 
tion; admission, for admitting to rights or privileges. 
Accept. To accept is to receive; to except, to leave out: “The 
meeting accepted the report of the committee.” Except 


THE RIGHT WORD 381 

as a verb is not common. The preposition is except: “All 
except me were called on.” 

Aggravate. Correct in the sense of annoy or vex. The usage has, 
however, many enemies. 

All of. Of is unnecessary. 

(Better) I lost all my books (not all of my books). 

Any place, every place, no place, some place. Incorrect. Use 
anywhere, everywhere, etc. 

Anywheres, everywheres, etc. Incorrect for anywhere, every¬ 
where, etc. 

Anxious. Colloquial for eager or desirous. 

(Colloquial) I am anxious to begin work at once. 

(Standard English) I am eager to begin work at once. 

Athletics. Commonly considered plural. 

Appreciate means to estimate justly. Hence we cannot say, “I 
appreciate your kindness highly .” 

Audience, spectators. The audience hear; the spectators see: 

“the audience at the lecture,” “the spectators at the football 
game.” 

Avocation, vocation. An avocation is a secondary occupation, 
such as music, fishing, or boating. 

Awful. Colloquial or slang as epithet of disapproval. 

Avoid expressions like “an awfully nice time,” “an awfully good 

lunch,” “an awful bore.” 

Beside, besides. Beside is a preposition meaning by the side of. 
Besides is either an adverb meaning in addition or a preposi¬ 
tion meaning in addition to. 

Back of. Colloquial for behind: “The garage stands back of 
the house.” 

Balance. A bookkeeping word. Don’t use for rest or remainder. 

Beat. Correct for defeat in everyday English: “Harvard was 
badly beaten on the football field.” 

Be back. Colloquial for return. 

Between. Commonly applies to only two objects. Among is 
used for three or more. Between, however, may “express 
the relation of a thing to many surrounding things severally 


382 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


and individually ”: “ treaty between the three powers,” 

“a railroad between Chicago, Philadelphia, and New York.” 

Bound. Colloquial for determined: “He was bound to succeed.” 

Bring, fetch, take. To bring requires one motion — towards the 
speaker; to take, one motion — away from the speaker; 
to fetch, two motions — from the speaker and to him again. 

(Correct) Take this message to Captain Morse; bring his reply 

to me; and then fetch my horse from the stable. 

But what. Incorrect when used instead of that or but that. 

Can, may. Use can for ability and may for permission, prob¬ 
ability, or possibility. 

Could and might have the same general distinctions as can 
and may. 

Catch a train or boat. Correct. 

Come and see me. Colloquial or familiar. 

Continual, continuous. Continuous means uninterrupted. Con - 
tinual implies frequent repetition. 

Couple of. Widely used for two but objected to by some writers 
and rhetoricians: “couple of years,” “couple of months.” 

Since the expression has enemies, it is better to avoid it. Couple 

implies that the two united are bound by some tie and are suitable 

for such a union. 

Character, reputation. Reputation is what people suppose a 
person’s character to be. Character is what the person really 
is; it is his moral stature or worth. 

Claim. Colloquial for maintain. The usage is popular, though 
objected to. 

(Better) I maintain that Cromwell was not a tyrant. 

Consul, council, counsel. A consid is a representative of a govern¬ 
ment; a council is a body of men; counsel as a noun is advice 
or a lawyer who gives advice. 

Contemptible, contemptuous. Contemptible means deserving con¬ 
tempt; contemptuous, showing contempt. 

Credible ( believable ), credulous (inclined to believe), creditable 
(i deserving praise). 

Date. Low colloquial for engagement. 


/✓ 


THE RIGHT WORD 383 

Deadly, deathly. Deadly means causing death; deathly, looking 
like death. 

Discover, invent. To discover is to find out something that 
already exists; to invent is to produce something entirely new. 

Dove. Colloquial for dived. 

Drank. Colloquial for drunk as past participle of drink. 

Each other, one another. Used interchangeably. 

Either. Often used by standard authors for more than two: 

“either of the last three syllables.” This usage is objected 
to by the rhetoricians, who require any one for more than two. 

Emigrant, immigrant. “After emigrating from Russia, he became 
an American immigrant.” 

Expect. Incorrect in the sense of think or suppose. 

Farther, further. Farther means more distant; further , additional: 

“We had to go farther to secure further information.” 
Further is sometimes used in the sense of more distant. 

Fewer, less. Fewer refers to number; less, to quantity: “The 
farmer had fewer cows and less wheat than usual.” 

Fine. Strictly the word means refined, delicate, free from im¬ 
purity, of excellent quality: “fine flannels,” “fine gold,” 
“fine dust,” “fine sense of honor.” Loosely used, it is a 
general epithet of approval: “a fine fellow,” “a fine ship,” 
“a fine day.” 

Firstly. Not thoroughly established for first. 

Fix. Colloquial for repair: “He fixed the broken door.” 

Folks. Colloquial for people. 

Funny. Colloquial for strange or odd. 

Get. Means to obtain, gain, win, earn, acquire, learn, receive, 
come to have, catch, contract, meet with, suffer: “get cholera, 
“get sick,” “get a fall,” “get the worst of it,” “get ten 
dollars a week,” “get up,” “get on,” “get off,” “get 
well,” “get ready,” “get ahead.” “Have got to go” is 
colloquial. Do not overwork get. 

Gotten. Used by many good speakers instead of got as the 
past participle. 

Graduated. Correct in active or passive voice: “He graduated 
from Harvard.” 


384 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


Gentleman, lady. Don’t use these words for man and woman. 

“There were only four women and five men on the eleven o’clock 

trolley.” 

Guess. Colloquial for think: “ I guess I’ll go.” 

Healthy, healthful, wholesome. Healthy and healthful are often 
used interchangeably. Strictly, healthy means having health 
and healthful, promoting health: “ healthy girl,” “healthful 
climate,” “wholesome food.” 

Home. Sometimes without a preposition expresses result of 
motion: “He is home from Europe.” 

If. May introduce noun clause after see, ask, learn, know, doubt, 
and the like: “He asked if the paper had been found.” 

In, into. Use into to express motion: “He fell into the pond.” 

It is me. Colloquial. 

Kind of, sort of. Low colloquial when used instead of rather. 

(Preferable) I am rather {not kind of) glad he was not elected. 

Learn, teach. To learn is to acquire knowledge or skill. To teach 
is to give instruction. 

Leave, let. To leave means to allow to remain or to depart from. 
To let means to permit. 

(Correct) Leave your hat in the hall. 

We shall leave you for an hour. 

Let him have the book. 

Let him be. 

Liable, likely, apt. Likely indicates probability. Liable expresses 
obligation or the possibility of evil. Apt means having an 
habitual tendency or quick to learn. 

(Correct) You are liable to be hurt. 

He is an apt pupil and is likely to succeed as a 
salesman. 

Loan. Objected to as a verb. Most careful writers use lend as 
the verb and loan as the noun: “lend a dollar,” “arrange a 
loan.” 

Lot of people, lots of automobiles. Colloquial. 

Lovely view, poodle, poem. Colloquial. 

Mad. Colloquial for angry. In standard English mad means 
crazy. 


THE RIGHT WORD 


385 


Majority, plurality. If A, B, and C are candidates in an 
election at which 500 votes are cast, to have a majority A 
must have at least 251 votes. To have a plurality he must 
have more votes than are cast for either B or C. If there 
are 200 votes for A, 180 for B, and 120 for C, A has a 
plurality. 

Make. Colloquial for earn or gain: “He makes ten dollars a 
week.” 

Manners, morals. Manners respect the minor forms of acting 
with others and toward others; morals include the important 
duties of life. Good manners make us good companions; 
good morals make us good members of society. 

Mathematics. Singular noun. 

Mighty. Colloquial or familiar for very: “I’m mighty glad to 
see you.” 

Most. Dialectic or childish for almost. 

(Correct) We have almost completed the study of force. 

Movies. Colloquial for moving 'pictures. 

Nice. Strictly used, nice means minutely accurate, precise, dis¬ 
criminating, refined, finical, subtle: “nice sense of touch,” 
“nice distinction,” “nice eye for distance.” Loosely used, 
it is a general epithet of approval: “a nice fellow,” “a nice 
long letter,” “nice to me.” 

None. Either singular or plural. 

(Correct) None are to blame. 

None of the pupils was prepared. 

Off of. Vulgarism for from. 

(Correct) I got the knife from ( not off of) Jack. 

Oral, verbal. Verbal means in words / oral , in spoken wotds. 

Party, person. Party, except in legal language, means a body of 
people: “ dinner party,” “Democratic party,” “foraging 

party.” 

Patronize. Colloquial for to trade with. A patron helps, defends, 
protects, or supports. 

(Correct) We trade with the oldest firm in town. 

Per day. Correct. 


386 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


Persecute, prosecute. 

(Correct) The dishonest cashier was dismissed and prosecuted. 

The early Christians were persecuted. 

Plenty. Colloquial except as noun. 

(Colloquial) Wheat is plenty. 

(Standard) There is plenty of wheat in the United States. 

Politics. Commonly treated as plural. 

Posted. Colloquial in sense of informed: “ Newspapers keep us 
posted on current events.” 

Presume. Correct for suppose. 

Pretty as an adverb. Colloquial or familiar: “pretty cold,” 
“pretty often,” “pretty late.” 

Proved. Better than proven because it has no enemies. 

Practical, practicable. Practical is the opposite of theoretical. 
Practicable means workable. 

(Correct) He is a practical mechanic. 

The scheme is delightful but not practicable. 

Quick. Correct as adverb: “Come quick.” 

Quite. Precisely used, quite means (1) wholly or (2) really, 
truly, positively: “quite correct,” “quite alone,” “quite a 
scandal,” “quite a large party.” Loosely or colloquially 
used, the word means very or rather: “quite sick,” “quite 
tired.” 

» 

Quite a few, quite a good deal, quite a little. Colloquial. 

Quite some. Vulgar. 

Real. Colloquial for very or really. 

Receipt. Correct for recipe: “the receipt for corn bread.” 

Recollect, remember. Recollect usually suggests a conscious 
effort to recall: “I remember his main idea but can’t recol¬ 
lect his exact words.” Remember implies only that the 
impression remains. 

Remember of. Omit of. 

Respectfully, respectively. Respectfully means with respect: 
“Yours respectfully.” Respectively means each to each in 
order. 

(Correct) Columbus and Boston are the capitals respectively of 

Ohio and Massachusetts. 


THE RIGHT WORD 


387 


Right away. Colloquial for immediately. 

Raise. Colloquial for the noun increase. 

(Standard English) He deserved his increase in salary. 

Same. An error when used instead of a personal pronoun. 

(Wrong) Your letter came today, and I shall reply briefly to the 

same. 

Scholar. Either (1) one who is taught in school or (2) a learned 
person. Some authorities object to its use in the first sense. 

Show. Colloquial for play. 

Show up. Colloquial for arrive. 

Sit, set. Do clothes set or sit? Colloquial usage favors set. 
Standard authors prefer sit. 

Slow. Correct as adverb: “Drive slow.” 

Some. Incorrect for somewhat: “He is somewhat better.” 

Stop. Colloquial for stay. 

(Standard English) In New York we stayed at the Commodore. 

State, say. State means to set down in detail. 

Sure. Colloquial for surely. 

That. Correct as adverb, though often objected to: “I didn’t 
intend to go that far.” 

Thing. Choose a more specific word. 

Truth, veracity. Truth belongs to the thing; veracity to the 
person: “Because of the veracity of the narrator no one 
questioned the truth of the story.” 

Try and. Colloquial or familiar for try to. 

Up to you. Useful slang: “It’s up to you.” 

Very. This word should be given a furlough. It is called upon 
for too much service by most young writers and speakers. 
When overworked, very , instead of strengthening a state¬ 
ment, weakens it. 


EXERCISE 

Select the correct word in each of the following sentences. Justify 
each choice. 

1. He was - his dog tricks (learning, teaching). 2. My 

father-me go on the outing (let, left). 3. -I go along on 





388 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


the fishing trip (Can, May)? 4. That will - him a lesson 

(teach, learn). 5. His parents-him do it (left, let). 6. Kindly 

- me know when you are coming (leave, let). 7. Please, 

Mother, - I go to the baseball game (can, may)? 8. My 

brother - me a new tennis stroke (learned, taught). 9. The 

study of English is important because it - us how to write 

and speak correctly (learns, teaches). 10. Celia doesn’t wish to 

-Rosalind go (let, leave). 11. Why don’t you-us go to 

the exhibit (leave, let)? 12. My aunt didn’t wish to be bothered 

with me and had me - away to an orphan asylum (brought, 

taken). 13. - the mail from the village immediately (Fetch, 

Bring). 14. - the car to the nearest garage (Bring, Take). 

15. The crew opened the bag of winds because they thought the 

bag contained gold, which Odysseus was - home (bringing, 

taking). 16. Nausicaa promised to-him to the village (bring, 

take). 17. I shall endeavor to prove that in two periods a week 

a teacher could-a girl how to make many of her own clothes 

(learn, teach). 18. He - his sons drink and disgrace the 

family (let, left). 19. - I take my composition from the 

folder (Can, May)? 20. Stiggin - me to write the composi¬ 

tion heading correctly (learned, taught). 21. —— I go upstairs 
(Can, May)? 22. -me go (Leave, Let). 23. -I have an¬ 
other glass of milk (Can, May)? 24. - the dough rise in a 

warm place (Leave, Let). 25. I forgot to-my English book 

home last night (bring, take). 26. Throw it - the fire (in, 

into). 27. His mother thinks he is-better (some, somewhat). 

28. I regret that I cannot-your invitation for May 6 (except, 

accept). 29. The sign on the factory read: Positively no - 

(admittance, admission). 30. I remained under the tree for 

-time (a long, quite some). 31. Henry- and I went swimming 

- every day (almost, most). 32. If children were taught to 

be more careful, -lives would be lost (fewer, less). 33. The 

mother divided the apple-the three boys (between, among). 

34. You must have had a wonderful time - Paris (at, in). 

35. The suit you received by mistake was made for another- 

(party, person). 36. He is - to succeed (liable, likely). 

37. What will be the- of the new tariff law (affect, effect)? 

38. - was one cause of the rapid growth of our population 





































THE RIGHT WOftD 


389 


during the decade 1900-1910 (Emigration, Immigration). 39. The 
applicant has an excellent - for honesty (character, reputa¬ 

tion). 40. — — is properly used of that which seems, but may 
not be real; -, of that which both seems and is real (Appar¬ 

ently, Evidently). —A. S. Hill. 41. Rome entertained the most 

-opinion of the Jews (contemptible, contemptuous). 42. - 

interruptions make-work impossible (Continual, Continuous). 

43. His address was a highly - performance, if the news¬ 
paper reports are - (credible, creditable). 44. The reports 

of the- combat made him grow- pale (deadly, deathly). 

45. -, May 2 was the date for which the game was scheduled 

(First, Firstly). 46. For your vacation select a - spot; eat 

- food; and become - (healthy, healthful, wholesome). 

47. The - machinist hit upon a- device for reducing the 

friction (practical, practicable). 48. He and his son are - 

a lawyer and a journalist (respectfully, respectively). 49. \ou 

- always choose outdoor books (mostly, almost, most). 

50. The modifiers of the subject do not - the number of the 

verb (affect, effect). 51. Benjamin Franklin - electricity 

(discovered, invented). 52. Although he-them well, he was 

embarrassed by his inability to - their names (remembered, 

recollected) (recollect, remember). 53. The - applauded 

the pitcher (audience, spectators). 54. Two of the party went 

to Oxford, but the-spent the day in the House of Parliament 

(rest, balance). 55. For president John received 30 votes; 

Marion, 18; and Jaxon, 10. John had a - of 2 and a 

of 12 (majority, plurality). 56. His many - sap his energy 

and prevent his rapid advancement in his (aAocations, 

vocations) (avocation, vocation). 57. The town - refused 

to admit to their meetings the - for the railroad (council, 

counsel). 58. Every year a certain-of enlisted men are sent 

to West Point (amount, number). 

EXERCISE 

Indicate the standing ( vulgarism, slang, localism , colloquialism, 
standard English ) of each of the following expressions: . burglarize, 
back out, through dinner, swell party, auto, a brainy man, I 
































390 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


haven’t a copper, could have gone, a square deal, it is me, enthuse, 
exam, gym, hire a hall, Father licked John, phone, raise a family, 
run a grocery store, up against it, toe the mark, want to go, hit 
or miss, want it the worst way, hot air, by hook or crook, graft, 
frame-up, bully, put one over, gent, aboveboard, get away with 
it, namby-pamby, throw down, get your number, gabble, deliver 
the goods, bleachers, grouch, call-down, pell-mell, all in, giggle, 
cut it out, bawl out, good night! 

EXERCISE 

On what plane does each of the italicized expressions standf 
Translate the colloquial, provincial, and slang expressions into 
standard English. Express the ideas accurately. 

1. I am anxious to verify the above statement and shall 
arrange to meet you any place you suggest. 2. The team will 
be back on Monday, even if badly beaten in Saturday’s game. 
3. My folks claim that I should enter Harvard when I have 
graduated from Lawrenceville. 4. I am kind of sorry he couldn’t 
come. 5. I am mighty glad he is making better wages ushering 
for the movies. 6. I presume that you patronize the new grocer. 

7. She is pretty well posted on new receipts for making bread. 

8. He sure started slow. 9. Try and see that the success of the 
circus is up to you. 10. We made their star pitcher look like 
thirty cents. 


EXERCISE 

Which expressions in the parentheses are colloquialf Write the 
sentences in standard English. 

1. His impudence made me - (mad, angry). 2. Despite 

his parent’s objection he is-to study law (bound, determined). 

3. It is-that the cackling of geese saved Rome (funny, odd). 

4. You must choose - (immediately, right away). 5. Food 

is not so-as it was twenty-five years ago (plenty, plentiful). 

6. The speaker of the evening didn’t - (arrive, show up). 

7. How soon can you-my shoes (fix, repair)? 8. I -the 

attendance will be small today (guess, think). 9. In Naples 










THE RIGHT WORD 


391 


we - at the Continental Hotel (stayed, stopped). 10. There 

were - of tennis courts (lots, a large number). 11 . The Im¬ 
portance of Being Earnest by Oscar Wilde is a good- (show, 

play). 


EXERCISE 

Make clear the differences in meaning. Use each word in a 
sentence that shows its meaning. 

1. Ability, capacity. 2. Acceptance, acceptation. 3. Access, 
accession. 4. Accredit, credit. 5. Advise, claim, say, state. 
6. Custom, habit. 7. Distinct, distinctive. 8. Enormity, enor¬ 
mousness. 9. Expect, suspect, suspicion. 10. Hire, lease, let. 
11. Proposition, proposal. 12. Principal, principle. 13. Comple¬ 
ment, compliment. 14. Requirement, requisite. 15. Statue, 
statute. 16. Amount, number, quantity. 17. Begin, commence. 
18. Loose, lose. 19. Love, like. 20. Construe, construct. 
21. Famous, notorious. 22. Decided, decisive. 23. Human, 
humane. 24. Prominent, predominant. 25. Wait for, wait upon. 
26. Exceptional, exceptionable. 27. Observation, observance. 
28. Neglect, negligence. 29. Crime, sin. 30. Courage, fortitude. 
31. Conscious, aware. 32. Purpose, propose. 33. Learning, 
wisdom. 34. Apparent, evident. 







CHAPTER XX 


ARTICULATION, ENUNCIATION, AND PRONUNCIATION 

The average American is lip-lazy. Thousands of us speak 
back of our teeth, or through our noses, or behind our lips. 

We do not open our mouths when we speak; or if we do we 
yell or scream. A well-modulated voice is the exception; 
clear enunciation is exceedingly rare. —The Ladies’ Home 
Journal. 


Importance. Julius Abernethy says, “Pronunciation is 
probably the most neglected subject of education. This is 
more deplorable since it is by oral rather than by written 
language that one’s culture is commonly judged.” 

Preliminary Test 

Many pupils can’t pronounce difficult words when they look them up 
in the dictionary. Can you? Pronounce these words: 

1. automobile (o'to-mo'bfl; o'tb-mo-ber) 

2. vaudeville (vod' vll) • 

3. auxiliary (og-zil'yd-rl) 

4. inquiry (In-kwlr'i) 

5. aeronaut (a'er-6-not) 

6. renaissance (rSn'6-sans'; re-na'sdns) 

7. indefatigable (In'de-f&t'I-gd-b’l) 

8. naivete (na'ev'ta') 

9. despicable (dSs'pi-ka-b’l) 

10. inexplicable (In-gks'ph-kd-b’l) 

11. Savonarola (s&v'o-na-ro'ld; It. sa'vo-na-ro'la) 

12. New Orleans (nu or'le-dnz) 

13. Buenos Ayres (bwa'nos i'ras; bo'nws a'rlz) 

14. Rio de Janeiro (re'o da zha-na'ro; ri'-o-ja-ne'-ro) 

15. Roosevelt (ro'ze-v61t) 

16. Petrograd (py6'tr5-grat') 


392 


ARTICULATION, ENUNCIATION, PRONUNCIATION 393 


17. Chateau-Thierry (sha'to' tyg're') 

18. Himalaya (hi-ma'ld-ya; hlm'd-la-yd) 

19. Versailles (vSr'sa'y’; Angl. ver-salz') 

20. Saint-Mihiel (s&n' me'ygl') 


If you have pronounced the words correctly, you can 
probably pronounce any word you look up in Webster’s 
New International Dictionary. In using other dictionaries, 
remember that the sounds are the same although the dia¬ 
critical marks are different. 

Classes of sounds. A vowel is a sound in which the 
voice is modified, but not obstructed, by the mouth and 
nasal passages. The passage for the sound is free. A 
consonant sound is produced when the voice or breath is 
obstructed by the teeth, lips, tongue, and soft palate. The 
obstruction may be either a closing of the passage or a 
narrowing, resulting in rubbing or brushing against the 
sides. 

EXERCISE 


Which of these represent vowel sounds: a, p, b, w, oo, x, e, a, 
k, l, m, i, r, h, e, sh, oif Produce each sound and justify your answer. 


Diacritical marks. The marks of Webster’s New Inter¬ 
national Dictionary are discussed because they are used 
most widely. 

Name of Mark 


a (long) 
a (short) 
a (Italian) 
a (intermediate) 

A 

a 

e 


a 

o 

th 

s 

a. 

9 


macron 

breve 

two dots (or diaeresis) 
one dot (or semidiaeresis) 
circumflex 
tilde 

modified macron 
modified breve 
transverse bar 
suspended bar 
cedilla 


A letter printed in italics is obscure. 


394 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


Sometimes pronunciation is indicated without respelling 
or with few changes in spelling: na/i'v^'te', Atl&n'tic £ft'y. 
For this purpose additional marks are required. In the 
lists the symbols in parentheses are other ways of rep¬ 
resenting the sounds and are given to show, for example, 
that the sound oo may be spelled oo, u, or o, and that the 
sound u may be spelled e, i, y, o, a, or u. 


Vowels 


a (e), ate, eight 
a ( e ), care, ere 
a, add 
a, ask 


a, arm 


e (i), eve, machine 
e end 

i (y), ih, city 
6, old 


6 (a), odd, was 
o, soft, dog, cloth 
6 («, au, aw), orb, all, law, author 
u (o), up, son 

H ( e, f, y, d, a), urn, earn, fir, 
myrrh, work, liar 
do (o, u ), pool, rude, do 
oo (o, u), foot, pull, wolf 


Vowels Occurring Only in Unaccented Syllables 
d, e, 6, u, senate, event, obey, unite 

a, a, e, 6, u (printed in italics), final, sofa, recent, control, circus 


Diphthongs 

i (y) = a + e or i, ice, fly oi ( oy) =6+1, oil, boy 

ou ( ow ) = d + do, out, owl u (ew) = i or y + oo, use, dew 


Two classifications of consonants. One classification of 
consonants is according to the stuff of which they are made. 
Your fingers will remember this classification for you. 
Place the thumb and fingers upon the throat just above 
the collar. Then test the consonant sounds. The vocal 
cords vibrate in the production of the voiced consonants 
but are at rest for the breath sounds. The breath con¬ 
sonants are p, t, k, /, s, h, th, and sh. 

Consonants are classified also according to the place of 
articulation—the point at which the lips, tongue, teeth, 
and soft palate obstruct the voice or breath. Your lips, 


ARTICULATION, ENUNCIATION, PRONUNCIATION 395 

tongue, teeth, and soft palate will remember this classifi¬ 
cation for you. 

Classification of Consonants according to Place of 

Articulation 

Lips 

p, pup b, bob 

m, mum w, win 

Lips - teeth 

f ( gh, ph), fife, laugh, triumph v, revive 

Tongue - teeth 

th } thin thy then 

Tongue - front - palate 

t ( d, th)y tot, crossed, Thomas s (g, sc, ss), this, cell, scene, hiss 
d, dead 2 (*, x), zone, is, Xenophon 

n, nun l, lull 

r (rh), roar, rhinoceros 

Tongue - mid - palate 

sh (gh, ce, ci, s, se, si, ti), ship, chaise, ocean, social, sure, nauseous, 
pension, ration 

zh ( z, zi, s, si, g), azure, glazier, pleasure, vision, rouge 
V , yet 

Tongue - back - palate 

k ( ck, ch, €, qu, que ), kick, chorus, cat, conquer, pique 
g ( gue , gu, gh), go, plague, guard, ghost 
ng ( ngue, q), long, tongue, bank 

Aspirate 

h, hide 

Consonantal Diphthongs 
ch = tsh {te, ti), chair, question, righteous 

j = dzh (g, di, ge, gi, dg), joke, gem, soldier, edge, region, pigeon 
qu = kw, queen x = ks, vex 

wh = hw, why x = gz, exist 



39G 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 
EXERCISE 


Beginning with b, produce before a mirror all the consonant 
sounds. With your thumb and finger find out whether the vocal 
cords vibrate. Notice the position of the tongue or lips. Then 
describe each sound by naming two classes to which it belongs: 
b, voice, lips. 

k, breath, tongue-back-palate. 


Consonant Errors 


Wh 

Wh = h + w. Don’t omit the h. Pronounce when, why, 
which, wharf, white as if they were spelled hwen, hwy, 
hwich, hwarf, hwite. 


Distinction Exercise 


whale — wail 
what — watt 
wheel — weal 
where — wear 
whet — wet 
whether — weather 
whither — wither 
whoa — woe 


whit — wit 
whining — wining 
white — wight 
why — y 
whacks — wax 
which — witch 
while — wile 
whig — wig 


Words 

Wheedle, whim, whistle, whisk, whisker, whisper, whip, wheeze, 
whelp, when, whence, whiff, whimper, whimsical, whir, whirl, 
whisky, whittle, whiz. 

Sentences 

1. Mr. Watt asked which way Mr. White went. 

2. William considered whether it was wise to wear the white 
wig and whiskers. 

3. He whirled about and inquired whether Mr. Whitney 
whistled when he worked. 

4. Whether or not the weather is pleasant, I know where we 
shall go and which dress I shall wear. 


ARTICULATION, ENUNCIATION, PRONUNCIATION 397 

Ng 

N is carelessly substituted for ng. Foreigners often 
change ng to ngg or ngk. 

Words 

Anchor, anything, banquet, bringer, clanging, coming, concord, 
conquest, cunning, doing, during, English, going, handkerchief, 
hanger, hanging, hoping, including, incongruous, language, 
languor, leaving, nothing, running, something, speaking, strength, 
swinging, tranquil, thronging, vanquish. 

Sentences 

1. Amid the clanging and banging of bells the boys kept cling¬ 
ing to the swinging rope. 

2. The cataract strong then plunges along, 

Striking and raging as if war waging, 

Rising and leaping, sinking and creeping, 

Showering and springing, flying and flinging, 

Writhing and ringing. — Southey. 


Th 

D and t are sometimes substituted for th. the error 
is caused by placing the tongue against the upper gum. 
Place it against the upper teeth. 


Distinction 

then — den 
thine — dine 
thy — die 
thick — dick 
than — dan 
there — dare 
theme — deem 
thence — dense 


Exercise 

they — day 
thin — din 
though — dough 
thing — ding 
thirst — durst 
thirty — dirty 
thong — dong 
the — Dee 


Words 

Bequeath, blithe, cloths, clothe, breath, breathe, moths, 
mouths, paths, swarthy, oaths, that, this, thither, truths, with, 


398 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


width, wreaths, youths, three, those, thou, these, beneath, them, 
mother, father. 

Sentences 

1. “To thine and thee, while I breathe, there shall be no 
enmity beneath my roof.” 

2. Thrice blessed is the man who thrives through his own 
thrift, strength, and breadth of character. 

3. “My tough lance thrusteth sure, 

My strength is as the strength of ten.” 

H 

At the beginning of a word h is frequently carelessly omitted. 
Take a deep breath before uttering the sound. 


Distinction Exercise 


awl — haul 
ill — hill 
and — hand 
eat — heat 
eave — heave 
anchor — hanker 


air — hair 
am — ham 
ate — hate 
at — hat 
you — hew 
is — Ills 


W ords 

Him, her, hue, Hubert, human, humid, humorous, humility, 
humidity, Hugh, hugely, humiliation, humane, huge, hospital, 
hospitality, behind his back, in his place, at her work, to him, 
with him, believe him, to her party, I saw her, gave him, come 
here, took her, heard her. 


Sentences 

1. Hugh hewed his way to him. 

2. How often do you hear the inquiry, “How does he hold 
his office?” 

The sound of s is sometimes hissed. The hissing results 
from placing the tongue too far forward. If the tongue is 
kept back so that the tip does not touch the teeth, it is 
impossible to hiss the sound. 


ARTICULATION, ENUNCIATION, PRONUNCIATION 399 

Sentence 

11 Amidst the mists and coldest frosts, 

With stoutest wrists and loudest boasts, 

He thrusts his fists against the posts, 

And still insists he sees the ghosts.” 

W and v 

Some foreigners interchange v and w. To produce w, round 
the lips as for oo. For v place the lower lip against the 
upper teeth. 

Omission of a Consonant at the End of a Word or in 
a Difficult Combination of Sounds 

The tongue is naturally lazy. It does no more work 
than is required of it. Cts and sts are difficult combina¬ 
tions. The tongue would like to make them easy by 
omitting one or two of the sounds in each. Practice at 
first with a slight pause after the first of the three con¬ 
sonants: ac-ts, fac-ts, objec-ts, lis-ts, fis-ts. Don’t omit the 
final sound in such words as lest, last, gold, and cold. 

Distinction Exercise 


mints — mince 

cents — sense 

prints — prince 

bold — bowl 

tents — tense 

cold — coal 

dents — dense 

hailed — hail 

confidants — confidence 

scaled — scale 

penitents — penitence 

told — toll 

lend — lent 

used — use 

mend — meant 

Bess — best 

send — sent 

less — lest 

wend — went 

lass — last 

and — Ann 

ask — asked 

band — ban 

pass — past 

fold — foal 

shore — short 

gold — goal 

worse — worst 


400 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


Words 

Attract, instinct, object, perfect, connect, hundredth, acts, 
facts, defects, rejects, lists, next, tempts, texts, breadths, eighths, 
fifth, sixths, twelfths, widths, lengths, depths, strengths, second, 
bought, east, first, kept, except, manuscript, most, rest, slept, 
wept, midst, slightest, thousandth. 


Sentences 

1. My next text may be found in the first, second, third, fifth, 
seventh, and eighth verses of the second chapter of Acts. 

2. The fact that the adjutant told in the last report of the 
conflict has had its effect on the coast fight. 

3. He leaped to his feet and scanned the cloud-capped moun¬ 
tain; then he crept back and slept peacefully. 


Interchanging of Vocalized and Breath Consonants 

t-d — better, letter k-g — recognize 

p-b — potatoes, principal ch-j — postage, mileage 

f-v — have to, progressive th-tb — then, thither 

s-z — has to, because sh-zh — adhesion, version 

T and d are called cognates because they are made by 
the same action of the articulatory organs. They differ 
only in the stuff of which they are made: t , breath; d , 
voice. The other pairs are likewise cognates. Most fre¬ 
quently the breath sound is substituted for the voice sound, 
but occasionally the opposite mistake is heard. Much 
practice on the voiced sounds is needed. 


Words 

Assure — azure, luck — lug, puck — pug, match — Madge, 
etching — edging, batch — badge, pitching — pigeon, sown —■ 
zone, have— half, because, boys, choose, chose, cousin, cruise, 
discern, ears, fares, figs, friends, houses, Israel, museum, news¬ 
paper, president, resignation, please, prosaic, Roosevelt, sur¬ 
prised, census — senses, usage, usurp, years, yours, acid, ceases, 
was, whereas, visit, adhesion, aversion, dispersion, version, 



ARTICULATION, ENUNCIATION, PRONUNCIATION 401 


vision, conversion, measure, rouge, baggage, pillage, courage, 
village, besiege, charge, abusive, decisive, evasive, explosive, 
have, exclusive, revive, substantive, relative, beauty, forty, 
ninety, fortified, duty, little, potato, liberty, partner, mighty, 
weighty. 

Sentences 

1. Because the judge fears the pillage of the village, he adopts 
decisive and progressive measures to avert the disaster. 

2. He read Barnaby Rudge and The Red Badge of Courage. 

3. Sitting in the cottage, Madge saw her pigeon foraging for 
food on the edge of the ridge. 

R 

Many find r a hard sound to learn. In German and 
Yiddish the sound is produced farther back in the mouth 
than in English. Producing the r too far back is a common 
fault of western speech. For the correct sound permit the 
voice to pass out between the raised tip of the tongue and 
the front palate. 

In the South of England and in New England, r is commonly 
omitted if it follows the vowel of the syllable. 

Words 

Morning, particular, partridge, surprising, lord, iron, Harvard, 
February, governor, government, star, order, red, butter, better, 
pretend, word, third, trusted, try, three, hundred, laboratory, 
library, force, sport, farther, approach, rural, further, mirror. 

Sentences 

1. “When Freedom, from her mountain height, 

Unfurled her standard to the air, 

She tore the azure robe of night, 

And set the stars of glory there!” 

2. “Nearer my Father’s house, 

Where the many mansions be; 

Nearer the great white throne; 

Nearer the crystal sea.” 




402 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 

Lm and sm 

Avoid the introduction of a vowel sound between l and 
m or s and m in such words as elm, helm, overwhelm, film, 
realm, chasm, enthusiasm, baptism, communism, conservatism. 
M is produced with the lips closed. Hence close the mouth 
quickly after the production of s or m. 

Vowel Errors 
A and a 

To learn to produce a and a — 

1. Imitate good speakers who use these sounds. 

2. Everybody pronounces a correctly when followed by 
r; as, car, harvest, farm, harm. Learn this sound and use 
it in the words listed below. 

3. Think of a and a as farther back in the mouth than a. 

4. Think of a as half way between a and a. 


Distinction Exercise 


lank — last — lark 
dank — dance — dark 
cant — can’t — cart 
bank — bask — bark 
man — mass — m»r 
tank — task — tar 


hand — command 
gratitude — grass 
rank — raft 
rash — rasp 
manned — demand 
mash — mast 


Words 

a — Ask, alas, after, advantage, answer, amass, ant, basket, 
bath, morale, last, gasp, grasp, mastiff, task, cast, lass, glass, 
pass, chant, France, fast, graft, grant, shaft, lance, prance, 
pastor, plasterer, advance, slant, taskmaster, vast, raft, rafter, 
glance, brass, class, path, staff. 

a — Almond, alms, aunt, balm, calf, calm, daunt, embalm, 
half, laughter, launch, Nevada, promenade, salve, palm, psalm, 
wrath. 










// 


ARTICULATION, ENUNCIATION, PRONUNCIATION 403 

Sentences 

1. Father asked that the grass be cut along the path at the 
back of the yard. 

2. The class wondered whether the basket was filled with 
glass or brass. 

3. The ant does not bask in the sud shine nor dance in the 
grass but attends busily to his tasks. 


U 

The sound u is frequently pronounced oo by educated and 
intelligent people. The preferred pronunciation is y + do 
— dyook. For a lazy tongue dook is easier than dyook. 
The tongue has hard work when d, t, l, n , s t or th pre¬ 
cedes u. Think of words with u as if they were written 
dyooty, tyoob , dyook , syoot, tyoon, and Nyoo York. After 
r, l preceded by a consonant, and usually after j and the 
sound of sh, the sound is oo: bloo, root, Joon, shoor. 


Distinction Exercise 


feud — food 
due — do 
duly — Dooley 
lute — loot 
tulips — two lips 
tutor — tooter 
mute — moot 


beauty — booty] 
news — noose 
stew — stool 
muse — moose 
duke — do 
mewed — mood 
pure — poor 


Words 

Avenue, constitution, supreme, dude, duty, education, figure, 
inauguration, enthusiasm, Luke, lunatic, nuisance, institute, 
manufacture, stupid, suit, superiority, Tuesday, supine, maturity, 
new, neuter, accurate, opportunity, picture pitcher, numerical, 
tune, produce, revolution, salute, student, tumult, during, dura¬ 
tion, durable, posture, legislature, capture, induce, reduce, grati¬ 
tude, fortitude, destitute, fortune. 


404 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


Sentences 

1. The opportunity and duty of the duke was to institute 
education and manufacture in New York. 

2. The wind blew the student from the zoo to the new insti¬ 
tution on the avenue. 

3. The beauty of June is appreciated only by one in tune with 
nature’s moods. 

A, aw, o, ow at the End of a Syllable 

or Word 

The error results from letting the point of the tongue 
glide to the front palate and produce an extra sound. To 
prevent this parasitic r, hold the tongue firm; that is, 
keep the tongue behind the lower teeth on the vowel sound. 
Use a mirror for this correction. 

Distinction Exercise 

pillow — pillar 
raw — roar 
sawing — soaring 
comma — comer 
saw I — sore eye — saw rye 
papa — popper 

Words 

Drama, extra, idea, sofa, soda, straw, piano, pillow, hollow, 
innocent, composition, swallow, tomato, potato, tallow, umbrella, 
veranda, window, Emma, fellow, papa, mamma, Martha, China, 
America, Anna, California, Amanda, Columbia, vanilla, sarsa¬ 
parilla, Lima, Utica, Panama, Genoa, Russia, awning, dahlia. 

Sentences 

1. I saw the idea of the extra to warn against the awful drama, 
which violated the law. 

2. Mamma, papa, Anna, and Martha saw that drama in 
California. 


awe — ore 
caw — core 
draw — drawer 
law — lore 
maw — more 
paw — pore 


ARTICULATION, ENUNCIATION, PRONUNCIATION 405 

3. On the veranda Amanda drank the vanilla soda and sar¬ 
saparilla. 

do 

Do not substitute oo for do. 

Words 

Room, soon, broom, spoon, roof, root, food, hoof, rural, rumor. 

O 

When o occurs before r, 6 is often incorrectly substituted. 

Words 

Borrow, foreign, forest, morals, quarrel, morrow, orator, origin, 
correct, torrid, orange, abhorrence. 

In a few words u is incorrectly substituted for 6. 

Words 

From, of, was, upon, conscience. 


A 

o 

Do not use 6 {not, odd) in such words as dog, log, song, 
long, prong, moss, toss, loss, lost, wrong, boss, soft, cross, 
gone, off, trough, oft, often, cost, broth, cloth, and god. The 
New English Dictionary says that the o sound in these 
words is of “ doubtful quantity.” In other words, 6 
does not have precisely the same sound in all words. 

1. Do not say dog, song, cost. 

2. Do not say dawg, sawng, cawst. 

3. Use a sound between 6 and 6 {odd). 

E 

1. Again, said, sadth, says, and any have the e sound. 
Do not pronounce the words as they are spelled. 

2. Do not use a or u for e before r. 

3. Do not say git, gladniss, ingines. 


406 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 

Words 


Again, against, America, any, berry, celerity, cleanly, clerical, 
engines, error, fellows, ferry, get, gladness, goodness, herring, 
kerosene, merry, peril, pleasure, said, very, damsel, hazel, sever¬ 
ity, terror, travel, vessel, ten, pen, velvet, kettle, element, cent, 
meant, innocent, every, eleven, lamentable, entire, egg. 

Oi and er 

In New York City many pronounce oi and er practically 
alike and both incorrectly. Practice the correct sounds 
in boy — bur, coy — cur, foy — fur, hoi — her. 


Distinction Exercise 


boil — burly 
coil — curl 
coin — Kern 
foil — furl 
foist — first 


Hoyt — hurt 
join — journal 
oil — earl 
soil — surly 
voice — verse 


Words 

Bird, burn, church, curve, dirty, earl, eastern, earth, germ, 
girl, hurt, learn, mercy, nerve, New Jersey, stern, term, third, 
thirst, thirty, toil, turn, Turks, verb, word, work, world, hurdy 
gurdy. 

Sentences 

1. He threw the oil, not the earl, into the water. 

2. 0 girls, come out on the curb and see the birds fly over the 
church. 

3. The dirty boy with the big voice sold soiled Worlds and 
Journals in New York. 

/ 

Alias, captain, centralization, certain, city, deprivation, didac¬ 
tic, diploma, directly, dish, divan, facilities, family, fertile, fish, 
genuine, give, hypocrisy, Italian, it is, Latin, limit, liquid, mirror, 


ARTICULATION, ENUNCIATION, PRONUNCIATION 407 

motive, mountain, organization, Philip, Pilgrim, pretty, promi¬ 
nent, rapid, ridiculous, rinse, satin, since, spirit, victim, virulent, 
visit, vocalization, will, wish. 

A 

Do not nasalize a and do not substitute e for it. 

Words 

Cat, can, man, catch gather, had, hand, have, barrow, larynx, 
that, mat, am, barrel. 

A 

o 

Do not substitute 6 for 6. 

Words 

Caught — cot, daughter — dot, haughty — hot, sought — sot, 
taught — tot, wrought — rot, authority, balsam, because, caucus, 
Chicago, gaudy, laudable, laudanum, water. 

d — Alma mater, always, apparatus, aye (always), barbarian, 
data, gratis, ignoramus, nape, Sunday. 

o — Tomorrow, widow, window, won’t, yellow, glory, historian, 
Hoboken, hollow. 

u — Just, such, umpire, up, doth. 

Ou { pw ) 

Cow is sometimes incorrectly pronounced ca oo instead 
of ca do; now, na do instead of na oo. 

Words 

Down, round, noun, how, count, shout, pound, gown, hound, 
found, mound, sound, bound, drown, town, crown. 

Sentences 

1. I found the town surrounded by mountains. 

2. Round and round rolls the sound. 

3. Ounce, mound, pound, discount, sound, cloud, ground, doubt, 
and fountain may be used as nouns. 


408 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 

The First Syllable 

The careless speaker sometimes omits the vowel in 
the first syllable — sometimes pronounces it incorrectly. 
Examples are d’gree and dugree for degree, and b'lieve and 
bulieve for believe. 

Words 


About, agree, afraid, address, arrest, allow, because, begin, 
before, debate, decide, desert, defer, descend, disease, dispatch, 
affect, effect, efficient, eleven, engage, ensure, escape, perform, 
prefer, perhaps, become, police, surround, describe, despair. 

Vowels in Other Unaccented Syllables 

Pronounce the vowel in the unaccented syllable accu¬ 
rately but do not make the syllable unduly prominent. 


Distinction Exercise 


admittance — audience 
extravagance — independence 
countryman — countrymen 
relevant — judgment 
probable — audible 
acceptable — intelligent 
appearance — reverence 
repetition — ridiculous 
grocery — factory 
boundary — confectionery 
oldest — artist 
wanted — squalid 
angel — missile 
definition — manufacture 


temperance — difference 
gentleman — gentlemen 
abundant — apparent 
candidate — separate 
vegetable — forcible 
assistance — absence 
preparation — privilege 
debatable — illegible 
millinery — laboratory 
youngest — dentist 
velvet — favorite 
final — pencil 
council — counsel 
descendant — descendent 


Running Words Together 

Slurring is a common speech fault. The lazy tongue 
both runs words together and drops sounds. The carefu 











ARTICULATION, ENUNCIATION, PRONUNCIATION 409 

speaker makes each word easily intelligible and cuts the 
words apart. 


Practice List 

At all, but all, had to, got to, got there, give him, at him, at 
them, by him, caught him, on him, put him, in his soul, better 
than, more than, rather than, could you, did you, should you, 
don’t know, would you, days of danger, first time, last ten, give 
me that, let me, heard her, I can see them, just show them, want 
to, one and all, is he, would have done it, dark hair, what he did, 
offered up, cold ground, but always, did you ever, what you, 
let’s go, couple of fellows, for the day, to the desk, cannot do it. 
What did you say? Would you take them? Can’t you go? 


PRACTICE 

Read the selections with precise and delicate articulation. 

1. All the world’s a stage, and all the men and women merely 
players: they have their exits and their entrances; and one man 
in his time plays many parts, his acts being seven ages. At 
first the infant, mewling and puking in the nurse’s arms. Then 
the whining schoolboy, with his satchel and shining morning- 
face, creeping like snail unwillingly to school. And then the lover, 
sighing like furnace, with a woeful ballad made to his mistress’ 
eyebrow. Then a soldier, full of strange oaths, and bearded like 
the pard, jealous in honor, sudden and quick in quarrel, seeking 
the bubble reputation even in the cannon’s mouth. And then 
the justice, in fair round belly with good capon lined, with eyes 
severe and beard of formal cut, full of wise saws and modern 
instances; and so he plays his part. The sixth age shifts into 
the lean and slipper’d pantaloon, with spectacles on nose and 
pouch on side, his youthful hose, well saved, a world too wide 
for his shrunk shank; and his big manly voice, turning again 
towards childish treble, pipes and whistles in his sound. Last 
scene of all, that ends this strange eventful history, is second 
childishness and mere oblivion, sans teeth, sans eyes, sans taste, 
sans everything. — Shakespeare. 


410 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


2. Till thou canst rail the seal from off my bond, thou but 
offend’st thy lungs to speak so loud. — Shakespeare. 

3. Sweet smiling village, loveliest of the lawn, thy sports are 
fled, and all thy charms withdrawn; amidst thy bowers the 
tyrant’s hand is seen, and desolation saddens all thy green: one 
only master grasps the whole domain, and half a tillage stints 
thy smiling plain. — Goldsmith. 


PRONUNCIATION PRACTICE 

Consonants 


adjective 

congress 

archipelago 

conquest 

archbishop 

conversion 

architect 

coughing 

associate 

decease 

assure 

decisive 

auxiliary 

depths 

banging 

disaster 

banquet 

disease 

bequeath 

doing 

better 

edge 

blanket 

English 

blithe 

finger 

breadths 

friends 

butter 

gesture 

cabbage 

going 

cavalry 

gradual 

cease 

has to 

chaise 

height 

chimney 

hew 

chore 

his 

clanging 

hoping 

clinging 

houses 

clothes 

immediately 

cloths 

immersion 


including 

postage 

journal 

pudding 

judge 

reading 

length 

revive 

liberty 

running 

library 

senses 

little 

singer 

loose 

sixths 

longer 

sphere 

longing 

strength 

lose 

thither 

luxury 

usage 

mighty 

usurp 

mileage 

wheels 

morning 

when 

moths 

where 

mouths 

whether 

niche 

which 

ninety 

while 

oaths 

why 

partner 

widths 

paths 

with 

persist 

worst 

pillage 

wreaths 

playing 

years 


ARTICULATION, ENUNCIATION, PRONUNCIATION 411 


Vowels 


accurate 

coffee 

glance 

salve 

advance 

command 

glory 

saucy 

after 

coupon 

grant 

says 

alumnae 

creek 

grass 

shaft 

alumni 

dance 

half 

since 

always 

daughter 

hoarse 

sleek 

answer 

describe 

just 

sought 

asked 

draught 

khaki 

spirit 

audience 

drought 

laugh 

staff 

aunt 

duke 

maybe 

student 

avenue 

duty 

merry 

subject 

aviator 

error 

morals 

such 

aye ( yes) 

fast 

nape 

suit 

aye ( always ) 

fellows 

neuter 

syrup 

bade 

figure 

new 

tassel 

barrel 

floor 

of 

taught 

bath 

for 

office 

tube 

because 

foreign 

oral 

tune 

berry 

forest 

past 

umpire 

borrow 

forget 

produce 

very 

calf 

four 

radish 

was 

can 

from 

rather 

water 

catch 

gather 

rinse 

wish 

civil 

get 

said 

yes 

class 

gladness 

salute 

you 


Vowels 

and Consonants 


abusive 

aversion 

dessert 

ferry 

advantage 

aviation 

destruction 

finis 

alien 

basket 

directly 

formerly 

altitude 

biography 

discern 

gaudy 

anti (prefix) 

caucus 

discretion 

genuine 

apparatus 

cello 

dispersion 

goodness 

archangel 

civilization 

diversion 

graft 

at all 

constitution 

during 

granary 

authority 

despair 

faucet 

grenade 


412 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


Vowels and Consonants 


grimy 

langsyne 

handkerchief 

larynx 

haughty 

laudable 

historian 

literature 

hospital 

livelong 

hundred 

long-lived 

hypocrisy 

longevity 

hypotenuse 

ludicrous 

ignoramus 

madras 

innumerable 

manufacture 

intestine 

maturity 

institute 

mesmerism 

introduce 

multiplication 

irony 

nothing 

italic 

nuisance 

kindness 

opportunity 

Sound or Syllable 

accidentally 

considerable 

across 

crept 

acts 

cruel 

arctic 

devil 

arithmetic 

distinctly 

artistically 

district 

asparagus 

don’t you 

athlete 

drowned 

athletics 

eighths 

attacked 

elementary 

authoritatively 

eleventh 

brethren 

elm 

cartridge 

enthusiasm 

cemetery 

especially 

chasm 

evil 

children 

exactly 

column 

examination 

comparatively 

expect 


parliament 

superintendent 

pathos 

superiority 

penalize 

taskmaster 

peony 

tranquil 

perspiration 

tremendous 

picture 

ultimatum 

presentation 

vanquish 

pretty 

various 

provide 

version 

radiator 

vicar 

reciprocity 

victim 

revolution 

whining 

ridiculous 

whit 

stupendous 

whoop 

substitute 

wrought 

suite 

zoology 

Added or Omitted 

factory 

Latin 

facts 

library 

film 

lightning 

finally 

lists 

generally 

mints 

gentlemen 

mystery 

geography 

neuralgia 

geometry 

next 

government 

nominative 

governor 

often 

grievous 

participle 

helm 

particular 

history 

partridge 

huge 

perhaps 

incidentally 

overalls 

jewel 

overwhelm 

kept 

poem 

laboratory 

poet 


ARTICULATION, ENUNCIATION, PRONUNCIATION 413 


poetry 

really 

secretary 

texts 

policeman 

realm 

shiftless 

told 

political 

recognize 

slept 

tract 

practically 

rejects 

soften 

twelfths 

prairie 

reservoir 

spasm 

usually 

prints 

sarsaparilla 

surprised 

used to 

pumpkin 

satin 

tempts 

vaudeville 


Accent 


accent (verb) 

contumely 

gondola 

municipal 

acumen 

conversant 

grimace 

narrator 

address 

decade 

guardian 

orchestra 

admirable 

decollete 

harass 

ordeal 

adversary 

defects 

herculean 

positively 

adverse 

deficit 

homeopathy 

precedence 

aerial 

despicable 

hospitable 

precedent (adj.) 

aeroplane 

detail 

hyperbole 

preferable 

aeronaut 

detour 

impious 

pretense 

affluence 

dirigible 

impotent 

primarily 

albumen 

discharge (noun) 

incognito 

pyramidal 

alias 

discourse 

incomparable 

recall 

allies 

disputant 

indissoluble 

recourse 

alloy 

divan 

industry 

reparable 

ancestral 

elevated 

inexplicable 

reputable 

applicable 

encore 

infamous 

research 

brigand 

entire 

influence 

resources 

calliope 

equitable 

inquiry 

robust 

cerebrum 

excess 

interesting 

romance 

champion 

explicable 

irreparable 

spectator 

chastisement 

exquisite 

lamentable 

superfluous 

chauffeur 

fiance 

lyceum 

theater 

comparable 

formidable 

maniacal 

traverse 

condolence 

gallant {brave) 

mediocre 

unfrequented 

contrary 

gallant {polite) 

mischievous 

vehement 


Proper Names 


Aisne 

Amherst 

Arab 

Arkansas 

America 

Antarctic 

Argonne 

Avon 



414 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 

Proper Names — Continued 


Boer 
Bologna 
Anne Boleyn 
Boston 
Bowdoin 
British 
Butte 
Cairo 
California 
Carnegie 
Ceylon 
Chateau- 
Thierry 
Cheyenne 
Chicago 
Cincinnati 
Clemenceau 
Cleopatra 
Coleridge 
Colorado 
Concord 
Czech 
Danish 
Delhi 


De Medici 

De Quincey 

Disraeli 

Edinburgh 

English 

Esther 

Eurydice 

Eyre 

February 

Fiume 

Foch 

France 

Genoa 

Geoffrey 

Ghent 

Gloucester 

Goethals 

Goethe 

Hades 

Hawaii 

Hoboken 

Indian 

Iroquois 

Israel 


Italian 

January 

Jekyll 

Joffre 

Leicester 

Les Miserables 

Lusitania 

Malay 

Magna Charta 
Massachusetts 
Mazzini 
Mohammedan¬ 
ism 

Moscow 

New Jersey 

New Orleans 

New York 

Palestine 

Pershing 

Petrograd 

Philippine 

Pilgrims 

Poincare 

Riis 


Roosevelt 
Saint Helena 
San Jose 
Saint-Mihiel 
San Juan 
Santiago 
Savonarola 
Schenectady 
Shantung 
Spokane 
Tennessee 
Thames 
Thursday 
Trafalgar 
(square) 
Trieste 
Tuesday 
Tuskegee 
Ukraine 
United States 
Worcester 
Yokohama 
Yosemite 


daunt 

deaf 

demonstrate 

diamond 

diphthong 

drama 

dramatization 

effort 

egotism 


Divided Usage 


Is one pronunciation preferable? Why? 

abdomen annex (noun) Buenos Ayres 

apricot 
apron 
Asia 
asphalt 
automobile 


acclimate 
adult 

advertisement 
aigrette 
Alabama 
Alsace-Lorraine barbarian 
alternate Bolsheviki 

amateur bravado 


buoy 

can’t 

cantonment 

centralization 

cocaine 

combatant 

concentrate 

dais 


ARTICULATION, ENUNCIATION, PRONUNCIATION 415 


either 

iodine 

patriotism 

Romola 

Elizabethan 

irrefutable 

peremptory 

sacrifice 

envelope 

Japanese 

prelude 

souvenir 

every 

juvenile 

proletariat 

spinach 

excursion 

leisure 

promenade 

squalor 

exile 

lever 

pronunciation 

strychnine 

extraordinary 

Los Angeles 

rabies 

tomato 

finance 

mademoiselle 

ration 

tribune 

foyer 

Magyar 

rebate (noun) 

truths 

garage 

mamma 

recess 

valet 

gladiolus 

Marseillaise 

relay (noun) 

Versailles 

grandfather 

Messrs. 

reptile 

Vladivostok 

haunt 

neither 

reveille 

warrior 

herb 

oleomargarine 

Rheims 

won’t 

illustrate 

organization 

Rio de Janeiro 

wound 

indisputable 

Paderewski 

rise (noun) 

youths 


Miscellaneous 


accompaniment bona fide 

exponent 

irrelevant 

adhesion 

bourgeois 

facilities 

irrevocable 

a la carte 

bourgeoisie 

finale 

jardiniere 

alma mater 

camouflage 

fountain 

justiciable 

aluminum 

caricature 

fricassee 

lief 

amenable 

casualty 

fulsome 

magnanimity 

anticlimax 

chef 

garrulous 

manuscript 

antithesis 

clique 

glisten 

mirage 

appendicitis 

comptroller 

gratis 

naive 

archives 

conjurer 

gubernatorial 

newspaper 

artificer 

cravenette 

heinous 

pacifist 

attache 

data 

hexameter 

pantomime 

attitude 

debris 

hydrangea 

pentameter 

audacious 

desultory 

hypocritical 

physicist 

bacillus 

diffuse (adj.) 

inanity 

plebiscite 

beneficent 

dishevel 

incongruous 

poilu 

biennial 

dramatis per¬ 

incorrigible 

propaganda 

bituminous 

sonae 

indefatigable 

protege 

blase 

elite 

intrinsic 

quay 



416 


quietus 

recognition 

regime 

repartee 

resume (noun) 

resuscitate 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


Miscellaneous — Continued 


sachem 

sanguine 

sacrilegious 

schism 

scintillate 

sinecure 


statistician 

status 

subpoena 

table d’hote 

tonsilitis 

trigonometry 


turgid 

vagary 

variegated 

verbatim 

virulent 

wharfs 


ruse 


CHAPTER XXI 


SPELLING 

POSSESSIVES 

The possessive case of a noun always has an apostrophe; 
the possessive of a personal pronoun never has an 


apostrophe. 




author’s 

enemies 

ladies ’ 

ours 

Burns’s 

foxes’ 

lady’s 

policemen’s 

Burnses ’ 

hers 

mice’s 

theirs 

children’s 

its 

officers’ 

woman’s 

donkey’s 

Jones’s 

one’s 

yours 

board of education’s 

editors-in-chief’s 



Apostrophe for Omission 


aren’t 

doesn’t 

o’clock 

won’t 

can’t 

haven’t 

wasn’t 

you’re 

didn’t 

it’s 





Capitals 


algebra 

French 

Indian Jew 

English 

Christian 

history 

Italian Latin 




Groups 



1. Three eed verbs: exceed, succeed, and proceed. Other 
words have ede: precede, procedure, secede, precedent. 

2. Three past tenses in aid: said, laid (50), and paid. Othei 


ay verbs are regular: stayed, played, delayed. 

3. Lose, move, prove. 

4. Certain, captain, villain, Britain. 

5. Mimicking, picnicking, picnicker. 

6. Forty, ninth. 


417 





418 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


7. Plurals in oes: dominoes, echoes, embargoes, heroes, 
jingoes, mosquitoes, mulattoes, negroes, noes, potatoes, tomatoes, 
tornadoes, torpedoes. Other common words end in os: pianos, 
sopranos, octavos, solos. A few may be written oes or os. 


Ei and ie 


For the sound of e long use ei 

after c and ie 

after any 

other letter. 

Exceptions. 

Weird, seize, neither, 

leisure, financier. 

(The weird 

financier seizes neither leisure nor sport.) 

For any other sound of the digraph use ei. 


Exceptions. 

Mischief, handkerchief, friend, view, 

sieve. (My 

friend went to 

see the view and for mischief carried her 

handkerchief 

in a sieve.) 

achieve 

deceive 

mischief 

siege 

belief 

fiend 

neighbor 

sieve 

believe 

fierce 

niece 

sleight 

besiege 

financier 

perceive 

thief 

cashier 

foreigner (100) 

piece (of paper) 

veil 

ceiling 

forfeit 

receipt 

vein 

chandelier 

freight 

receive 

weigh 

conceit 

grievous 

relief 

weird 

conceive 

handkerchief 

relieve 

wield 

counterfeit 

height 

seize 

yield 

deceit 

hygiene 

shriek 



Compounds 

1. Use a hyphen between two or more words combined 
into an adjective and used before a noun: well-known 
philanthropist, poverty-stricken family, 25-horsepower engine, 
dark-green silk, year-old car, ill-advised expedition, high- 
school education. Do not join an adverb in ly to an adjec¬ 
tive or participle: carefully built house. 

2. Use a hyphen between the numerator and denomina¬ 
tor of a fraction unless either part is written with a hyphen: 


SPELLING 


419 


two-thirds, two twenty-fourths, 
Do not hyphen one half in 
kept the other half.” 

all ready, (adj.) 
already (adv.) 


twenty-one thirtieths, nine-tenths. 
He gave me one half and 


all right 
altogether 
awhile (adv.) 
a while (noun) 
baseball 
basketball 
beforehand 
better-trained 
(soldier) 
bookkeeper 
classroom 
copyright 
ex-president 
first-class (shop) 


ascent (of mountain) 
bass (voice) 
berth (on boat) 
canvas (for tent) 
canvass (for votes) 
capital (punishment) 
Capitol (in 
Washington) 
colonel (in the army) 


five-quart (bucket) 

forehead 

foremost 

foresee 

forty-eighth 

forty-four 

good-bye or good-by 
heretofore (150) 
homework 
inasmuch as 
in order that 
in spite of 
moreover 
near-by (house) 
nevertheless 

Homonyms 

course (of ship) 
corps (in battle) 
hoard (sugar) 
lead (pencil) 
led (the horse) 
lessen (his duties) 
metal (window strip) 
passed (an 
examination) 


northeast 

nowadays 

oneself 

per cent 

playwright 

self-respect 

shepherd 

six-cylinder (automo¬ 
bile) 

sixty-day (furlough) 

southeast 

therefore 

two-family (house) 
un-American 
up-to-date (clothes) 


principle (of liberty) 
scene (of accident) 
shear (sheep) 
site (of building) 
stationary (engine) 
stationery (for writing) 
tear (dress) 
too (many) 
straight (line) (200) 
strait (jacket) 


complement (of verb) plain (people) 
coarse (cloth) principal (of school) 


absence 
abundant 
a che 


Miscellaneous 

address advise 

adieu agreement 

advice allege 


almost 

always 

ammunition 












420 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 

Miscellaneous — Continued 


ancient 

chestnut 

elegant 

lateer 

angeZ 

chose 

errand 

license 

animal 

chosen 

estimate 

ldy 

annual 

circular 

etc. 

lieutenant 

apartment 

circumstance 

evidence 

liquor 

appreciate 

citizen 

exaggerate 

loose 

apology 

clothes 

excel 

loss 

arouse 

college 

exhausted 

madam 

article 

colonies 

expense 

magazine 

associate 

color 

experience 

Maine 

assure 

column 

feminine 

majority 

audience 

comma 

fiery 

material 

automobile 

commence 

furnace (300) 

madress 

autumn 

conference 

garage 

measure 

bachelor 

consonant 

gases 

medal 

baggage 

compass 

genius 

Messrs. 

baboon 

concrete 

LZoyd George 

metaphor 

ballot 

consideration 

glacier 

minute 

banana 

control 

glisten 

moment 

baptise 

convenient 

grammar 

motor 

barbarous 

corporal 

grateful 

mournful 

barley 

council 

gready 

murmur 

bayonet 

counsel 

guard 

muscle 

benefit 

courtesy 

gymnasium 

mystery 

bicycle 

debater 

handfuZ 

necessity 

bouquet 

decide 

handsome 

nickei (350) 

breadth 

decision 

hyphen 

nuisance 

breathe 

decisive 

ignorance 

nymph 

brilliant 

defraud 

imagine 

obscene 

burglar 

depths 

imitate 

odor 

bnsy 

desert 

impossible 

Odyssey 

campaign 

difficulty 

intedigent 

officer 

cancel 

discover 

invitation 

official 

career 

discussion 

issue 

omelet 

carriage 

distinguish 

janitor 

omission 

celebration 

doctor 

khaki 

opinion 

character (250) 

elaborate 

laborer 

opportunity 



SPELLING 


421 


orchestra 

possible 

sense 

✓/ 

tailor 

paddle 

postscript 

sentence 

tennis 

pageant 

pro/ession 

sergeant 

testimony 

pamphlet 

pro/essor 

session 

thousand 

paraZZel 

proudest 

shadow 

unfortunate 

parliament 

pursuit 

shrewd 

untiZ 

pastime 

recipe 

skeleton 

upper 

permanent 

restaurant 

sleeve 

various 

persuade 

vogue 

speeches (400) 

victim 

Philippine 

salad 

squirrel 

village 

pigeon 

saloon 

stretched 

Wednesday 

pleasant 

scheme 

sufficient 

weZfare 

politicaZ 

science 

surest 

women 

politician 

season 

superintendent 

wrist 

possess 

senate 

syllable 

wriZZen 


Prefixes 

and Suffixes 


Coolly = cool 4- ly; totally 

= total + ly; disappear = dis -f 

appear; dissatisfied = dis + satisfied; misspell - 

* mis + spell. 

abbreviation 

association 

fourth 

naturally 

accommodate 

cautious 

humorous 

opponent 

accomplished 

colleague 

hurriedly 

originally 

accumulate 

collective 

ideally 

pitifully 

accuse 

colloquial 

illegal 

poisonous 

accustom 

commemorate 

illegible 

really 

adverbially 

coolly 

illiterate 

recollect 

aggravate 

cordially 

immigration 

recommend 

agreeable 

cruelly 

innocent 

recommendation 

allegiance 

dealt (450) 

interrupted 

rehearsal 

amendment 

disagreeable 

jewelry 

religious 

antecedent 

disappear 

meanness 

respectfully 

appearance 

disappoint 

meant 

successful 

applaud 

disapproval 

mischievous 

suspicious 

application 

dissatisfied 

missent 

totally 

appreciate 

dissimilarity 

misspell 

unanimous 

approaching 

drunkenness 

mountainous 

unnecessary 

appropriation 

emigration 

mysterious 

usually 

assistance 

fourteen 




422 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


Final y 


Y preceded by a consonant becomes i before a suffix. 
Exceptions occur — 

1. Before ing and ish to avoid double i: flying, babyish. 

2. After t: piteous, plenteous. 

3. In proper names: Henrys. 

4. In derivatives of adjectives of one syllable: shyness, drys, 
stand-bys, dryly. (Notice, however, the forms drier and driest.) 


accompanied 

earliest 

luckily 

satisfying 

alleys 

enjoys 

modifier 

slyly 

allies 

flies 

modifying 

spies 

applies 

happiness 

monkeys 

studying 

batteries (500) hurrying 

Murphys 

supplies 

busily 

implies 

noisily 

sympathies 

business 

journeys 

occupied 

tidiness 

carrying 

kindliness 

occupying 

tries 

chimneys 

ladies 

prophecies 

turkeys 

contemporaries laziness 

readily 

tyrannical 

cries 

likelihood 

replies 

vallevs 

*/ 


Final e 


Silent e is 

usually kept before a suffix beginning with a con- 

sonant, and 

dropped before a 

suffix beginning with a vowel. 

Exceptions — 




1. Words ending in ce and ge retain the e before able and ous 

to avoid the hard sounds of c and g: peaceable, < 

courageous. 

Woids ending in ie drop the e and change i to y before ing 

to avoid two 

successive i’s: dying, lying. 


3. Truly, 

duly, awful, argument, judgment, 

acknowledgment, 

wholly, ninth, 

mileage, dyeing, 

singeing, hoeing, shoeing, toeing, 

acreage, canoeing. 



accurately 

argument 

blamable (550) 

changeable 

advantageous 

arguing 

blockading 

coming 

advisable 

arrangement 

bluing 

completely 

affectionately 

awful 

canoeing 

courageous 

amusement 

believable 

careless 

desirable 


423 


SPELLING 


diner 

immovable 

dining 

likely 

dramatizing 

liking 

duly 

lively 

dyeing 

loneliness 

dying 

losing 

entirely 

lovable 

excitable 

loveliness 

excusable 

lying 

extremely 

making 

finely 

manageable 

firing 

management 

forcibly 

marriageable 

hoping 

merely 

imaginary 

mileage 

immediately 

movable 

immensely 

moving 


nineteen 

singeing 

ninety 

sloped 

noticeable 

surely 

outrageous 

taking 

peaceable 

tamable 

planed 

tasting 

pursuing (600) 

truly 

purchasable 

tubing 

safety 

tying 

salable 

useful 

scarcely 

usable 

scarcity 

usage 

serviceable 

using- 

severely 

valuable 

shining 

wherever 

sincerely 

wholesome 

sincerity 

writing 


Doubling Final Consonant 

A monosyllable or a word accented on the last syllable, if it 
ends in one consonant preceded by one vowel, doubles the final 
consonant before a vowel suffix. Exceptions: chagrined, trans¬ 
ferable, inferable, gaseous, and words in which the accent is thrown 


back: preference from prefer 

admitted 

dropped 

beginning 

embarrassing 

benefited 

enveloping 

biggest 

equipped 

clubbed 

excellent 

committed 

hemmed 

committee 

hopped 

committing 

incurred 

compelled 

inferred (650) 

conferred 

interfering 

controlled 

occurred 

deferred 

occurrence 

differing 

offered 

dragging 

omitted 


reference from 

refer. 

omitting 

regretted 

opened 

remittance 

patrolling 

shipped 

permitted 

sinning 

planned 

slamming 

possessive 

stepped 

preference 

stopped 

preferred 

stopping 

preferring 

suffering 

propeller 

transferred 

putting 

tripped 

reference 

warring 

referred 

warrior 

referring 



424 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


Misspelling Due to Mispronunciation 


accidentally 

despised 

library 

prominent 

across 

destroyed 

lightning 

pumpkin 

actually 

diamond 

literary 

quarter 

affect 

dilapidated 

machinery 

quiet 

effect 

divine 

mahogany 

reality 

acquaintance 

disastrous 

majesticaZly 

recognize 

acquire 

disease 

manufacture 

remembrance 

ambassador 

dissipation 

Massachusetts 

repetition 

arctic 

divide 

mathematics 

reservoir 

artilZery 

dormitory 

military (750) 

ridiculous 

artistically 

drowned 

millinery 

salary 

athletics 

effective 

mobilize 

secretary 

attacked 

efficient 

necessarily 

similar 

authoritatively 

elementary 

nominative 

specialty 

boisterous 

emphatically 

occasionaZly 

surprising 

cartridge 

enthusiastically 

organization 

temporal 

casualty 

especiaZly 

participial 

temporary 

caralry (700) 

evidently 

participle 

tenement 

cemetery 

except 

particularly 

thoroughly 

champion 

February 

partridge 

timidity 

chocolate 

finally 

perform 

tournament 

comparatively 

formally 

perspiration 

tragedy 

congratulate 

formerly 

physicaZly 

transitive 

definitely 

generally 

practicaZly 

umpire 

deliverance 

government 

prejudice 

undoubtedly 

democracy 

hospitaZ 

prevalent 

vegetable 

describe 

hygienic 

principaZly 

vegetation 

description 

incidentaZly 

privilege 

vicinity 

despair 

laboratory 

probably 

Wordsworth 


Miscellaneous 


acquisition 

alumni 

apparatus 

audible 

adjutant (800) 

amateur 

appendicitis 

autocracy 

adviser 

analyze 

ascertain 

auxiliary 

affirmative 

anniversary 

assassination 

barbarism 

alumnae 

anxiety 

attendant 

basis 


SPELLING 


425 


baiialion 

curriculum 

fundamental 

notoriety 

bazaar 

customary 

furlough 

nutritious 

belligerent 

cylinder 

harmonize 

obedience 

beneficial 

decency 

hypnotize 

obliterate 

calendar 

defendants 

horizon 

obstacle 

camouflage 

deficient 

hypocrisy 

operation 

candidacy 

deficit 

impromptu (900) parachute 

candidate 

delegate 

inconvenience 

paradise 

catarrh 

dependent 

incredible 

paralyze 

catastrophe 

descendant 

independence 

parliamentary 

cathedral 

(noun) 

indispensable 

particle 

caucus 

determine 

inevitable 

peculiarity 

census 

difference 

ingenious 

permissible 

chaperon 

diligence 

injunction 

perseverance 

chauffeur 

dirigible 

intemperance 

persistence 

Chautauqua 

discipline 

interrogative 

philosopher 

chef 

discourteous 

intrigue 

physique 

cholera 

dynamo 

irresistible 

platoon 

coherence 

dyspepsia 

irrigation 

pneumonia (950) 

commissary 

efficiency 

kerosene 

politics 

communicate 

eligible 

kindergarten 

predecessor 

competent 

emergency 

legitimate 

predominant 

competitive 

emphasizes 

limousine 

preliminary 

compulsory 

equivalent 

Macaulay 

preparation 

condemned 

George Eiio£ 

Macbeth 

prepositional 

condense 

equipment 

magnificent 

promenade 

conqueror 

exhibition 

maintenance 

realize 

conscience 

erroneous 

maneuver 

recruit 

conscientious 

existence 

manual 

renowned 

conscious 

extemporaneous massacre 

responsibility 

conspicuous 

extension 

militarism 

rhetoric 

consul (850) 

extraordinary 

militia 

rheumatism 

contemptible 

extravagance 

millionaire 

rhythm 

convalescence 

facilitate 

miniature 

ruffian 

cooperation 

fascinate 

minimum 

schedule 

correspondence 

ferocious 

miscellaneous 

secrecy 

criticism 

feudalism 

monotonous 

separate 

curiosity 

financial 

neuralgia 

Shakespeare or 



426 


Shakspere 

shrouded 

significance 

simultaneous 

solemn 

souvenir 

sovereign 

spacious 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


Miscellaneous — Continued 


statistics 

strategy 

substitute 

successive 

sympathize 

synonym 

tariff 

tendency 


tension 

territory 

Thackeray 

transference 

treachery 

tuberculosis 

typhoid 

ultimatum 


unprecedented 

unconscious 

vaccinate 

vengeance 

ventilated 

visible 

volume 

volunteer (1000) 


CHAPTER XXII 


FIGURES OF SPEECH 


Figures of speech are intentional deviations from the 
ordinary application of words or from the usual forms of 
expression. The purpose of these deviations is to increase 
the effect of language — to make ideas more concrete, 
vivid, beautiful, or forceful. Everybody enjoys pictures, 
but few can understand lengthy abstractions. 


Examples. “He is a lion.” Here the word lion is turned from 
its usual signification to denote a man of strength and courage , and 
it expresses the idea in a more pleasing and striking way than do 
the plain words. 

The silver moon is much more beautiful than the moon which has 
a pale bright color. 


Compare — 

“All is not gold that glitters.” 

“Our heads are in the lion’s 
mouth.” 

“The arrows fell like flakes 
of snow on Christmas Day.” 


“Appearances are often de¬ 
ceptive.” 

“We are completely in the 
power of our enemy, and he 
may destroy us at any moment.” 

“The arrows fell in countless 
numbers.” 


In a simile unlike objects are compared, and as or like 
is used. 


He eats like a wolf. 


Likening one man to another or one house to another 
is not figurative language: “He looks like his father.” 

A metaphor is a comparison of unlike objects without as 
or like. 

He wolfed down his breakfast. 

427 


428 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


Avoid the mixed metaphor, which results from combining 
unrelated metaphors. 

(Mixed metaphor) They’ll keep cutting the wool off the sheep 
that lays the golden eggs, until they pump it dry. (Here politicians 
are compared with three men. Who are the three?) 

(Mixed metaphor) His parents wished to pave his way over the 
stormy sea of temptation. 

A metaphorical and a literal statement should not be 
used in close connection; as, 

In peace thou art the gale of spring; in war, a valiant soldier. 

Difference between metaphor and simile. The metaphor 
is a briefer, stronger, and livelier figure than the simile. 
Both the metaphor and the simile contain comparisons, 
but in the latter the resemblance between the things com¬ 
pared is formally expressed, while in the former it is only 
implied. If we say, “He upholds the state as the pillar 
upholds the edifice,” we make a comparison by a simile; 
but if we say, “He is the pillar of the state,” we make a 
comparison by a metaphor. 

Every simile may be compressed into a metaphor, and 
every metaphor may be expanded into a simile. 

(Metaphor) The ship ploughs the sea. 

(Simile) As the plough turns up the land, so the ship acts in 
the sea. 

(Metaphor) Harrowing care. 

(Simile) Care that affects the mind as the harrow acts on the soil. 


EXERCISE 1 

Find resemblances to complete the similes: 

1. He is as silent as-. 2. Her tears flowed like-. 3. He 

spoke with a voice like-. 4. The tongue is like-. 5. The 

righteous shall flourish as-. 6. The horizon blazed like-. 

7. The huntsmen swept by like -. 8. His hounds were as 

fierce as -. 9. Their jaws were foaming like -. 10. Her 











FIGURES OF SPEECH 


429 


eyes were as blue as-. 11. His shoes look like-. 12. The 

people flew before the savage foe like "■-. 13. He is as wise 

as -. 14. Pleasures are like -. 15. He is as sly as -. 

16. She is as vain as-. 17. He is as faithful as-. 

EXERCISE 2 

Point out the objects compared in each simile, and state the point 
of resemblance: 

1. I will make thy seed as the dust of the earth. 2. He fell 
as falls the thunder-riven oak. 3. They shall be like a tree planted 
by rivers of water. 4. Like a bird frightened from its prey, she 
disappeared from view. 5. Lakes and rivers are as refreshing to 
the imagination as to the soil through which they pass. 6. The 
yellow perch looked like sunbeams in the water. 7. His history 
is as a tale that is told. 8. The brand shot up like a streamer of 
the northern sky. 9. The agony of their lamentation was like a 
wind that thrills all night in a waste land. 10. Let thy voice 
rise like a fountain for me night and day. 11. The barge moved 
off like some full-breasted swan. 12. The foe retreated like a 
wolf untimely scared. 

EXERCISE 3 

Name the two objects compared in each metaphor and state the 
point of resemblance: 

1. He knew that there were dark spots in his fame. 2. The 
class are making rapid steps in knowledge. 3. Ihis quarrel must 
be patched with cloth of any color. 4. The valiant taste death 
but once. 5. Ferocity is the natural weapon of the common 
people. 6. He was a cruel and iron-heartecl man. 7. The door 
to success is always labeled ‘‘Push.” 8. Procrastination is the 
thief of time. 9. Death is a debt which all are bound to pay. 
10. He intended to clothe himself with this power. 11. That 
deep and flowing sympathy comes from the fountain of personal 
suffering. 12. Ignorance is the curse of God; knowledge, the wing 
wherewith we fly to heaven. 13. Some books are to be tasted, 
others to be swallowed, and some few to be chewed and digested. 










430 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


14. He dared to stem the tide of tyranny. 15. The most efficient 
weapon with which men can encounter falsehood is truth. 


EXERCISE 4 

Expand the metaphors into similes: 

1. He is a wolf. 2. They have passed happily through the 
storms of life. 3. They reaped a golden harvest. 4. The hero’s 
ability was overshadowed by that of the heroine. 5. The thought 
struck my mind. 6. Life’s cup sparkles near the brim. 7. The 
moon threw her silver mantle over the darkness. 8. We loose 
our dogs of war against our own countrymen. 9. The army of 
Foch swept everything before it. 10. But let the curtains of 
the future hang. 


EXERCISE 5 

In these mixed metaphors change one of the figures so as to make 
it correspond with the other: 

1. “My friend,” said the professor, “you are sailing into dan¬ 
gerous ground.” 2. He shall be measured in the government 
scales. 3. When the mustang is caught in a lasso, all his struggles 
serve only to rivet his chains. 4. I smell a rat, I see it floating 
in the air, but I shall nip it in the bud. 


EXERCISE 6 

Express the thoughts in metaphorical language: 

1. He is very poor. 2. He is exceedingly foolish. 3. The 
schoolroom is a busy place. 4. Our body is so formed that it is 
easily put out of order. 5. He is a hard worker. 6. The san¬ 
guine man sometimes finds that he is sadly disappointed (dreams). 
7. The career of many a conqueror has been marked by cruelty 
(path . . . stained . . . blood). 8. They nobly gave up every¬ 
thing for the sake of their country (altar). 9. They have begun 
a new business (embark). 10. Providence has wisely ordained 
that we shall not know the future (sealed) 


FIGURES OF SPEECH 


431 


An allegory consists of a series of metaphors so con¬ 
nected as to form a story each step of which is symbolic 
of something else. A well-known example is the Pilgrim's 
Progress. In it the difficulties of the Christian life are 
symbolized and simplified by being depicted under the 
figure of the difficulties of a journey from the City of 
Destruction to the New Jerusalem. 

The parable and fable are forms of allegory. 

A parable is a short allegory in which some religious or 
moral truth is taught or illustrated. The incident or event 
may be real or supposed and is usually drawn from nature 
or human life. For an example see the Sower or the Ten 
Talents. 

A fable is a kind of allegory in which the story or inci¬ 
dent that points or illustrates a moral is supposed to be 
spoken by some animal or inanimate object. An example 
is iEsop’s Fables. 


EXERCISE 7 

Relate any fable you have read, and tell why instruction 
may be forcibly given by means of a fable. 

Personification consists in attributing life and mind to 
inanimate things. 

1 The lowest form of personification is produced with 
adjectives, and consists in ascribing the qualities of living- 
beings to inanimate objects; as, 

“The raging storm,” “the angry sea,” “the hungry shore,” “the 
smiling land.” 

2. The next higher form of personification is produced 
with verbs, and consists in making inanimate objects per¬ 
form the actions of living beings; as, 

The very walls will cry out against it. 

3. The highest form consists in ascribing to objects 
human feelings and purposes; as, “Earth felt the wound.” 


432 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


This form of personification is sometimes combined with 
apostrophe, which is an address to the absent as if present 
or the inanimate as if human; as, 

Put on thy beautiful garments, O Jerusalem, the holy city. 

Every personification is a metaphor. The name 'personi¬ 
fication is given to a metaphor of this type because an 
object is raised to or toward the rank of a person. 


EXERCISE 8 

What is personified in each of the following ? What is gained 
in each case by the personification? 

1. The mountains sing together; the hills rejoice and clap 
their hands.. 2. Every flower enjoys the air it breathes. 3. The 
earth was laughing after the shower passed by. 4. The hungry 
sea was roaring. 5. Morning looked on the dreadful scene. 
6. Pain and pleasure were at his elbow, telling what to do and 
what to avoid. 7. Nature is still continuing her patient educa¬ 
tion of us all in her great university. 8. Herein fortune shows 
herself more kind than is her custom. 9. The ship flew over the 
angry waves. 10. The aspen heard them and trembled. 

Metonymy is a figure of speech in which an object is 
presented to the mind, not by naming it, but by naming a 
part of it or something else that readily suggests it. Some 
common relations that give rise to metonymy are — 

1. Cause and effect; as, 

He writes a beautiful hand (handwriting). 

2. Effect and cause; as, 

There is death (something that causes death) in the cup. 

3. Container and the thing contained; as, 

The kettle (the water) boils. 

4. Sign and thing signified; as, 

The bullet (war) is giving place to the ballot (the organizations of 
peace). 


FIGURES OF SPEECH 


433 


5. An author and his works; as, 

// 

We are reading George Eliot (her novels). 

6. The part for the whole; as, 

She has seen sixteen summers (years). 

7. An individual for the species; as, 

He is a Rockefeller (a very rich man). 

Antithesis is a contrast of words or ideas. White appears 
whiter when bordered with black; sound seems louder 
when followed by silence. If therefore we wish to give a 
thought special emphasis, we can employ no more effective 
method than to place it in contrast with its opposite. 

Examples. “To be a blessing, and not a curse.” “The prodigal 
robs his heir; the miser robs himself.” 

» 

In antithesis the contrasted ideas should be expressed 
by similar constructions; nouns should be contrasted with 
nouns, adjectives with adjectives, verbs with verbs, and 
so on; and the arrangement of the words in the contrasted 
clauses should be as nearly alike as possible; as, 

His body is active, but his mind is sluggish. 

Hyperbole is exaggeration not intended to deceive. 

He wore canoes on his feet. 

The waves ran mountain high. 

Irony is language which, taken literally, expresses the 
contrary of what is meant. The real drift of the speaker 
is seen in his tone or manner. 

After Norman had wasted his evening in nonsense, his father 
^ “ DonT you think you have studied too hard this evening? 

EXERCISE 9 

Name the figures of speech in the following sentences. If the 
figure is a comparison, name the objects compared. Which figures 
do you consider most forceful? Which are most beautiful? Why? 

1. Thy word is a lamp unto my feet. — Bible. 2. The damp 


434 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


hill-slopes were quickened into green, and the live green had 
kindled into flowers. — Tennyson. 3. The keen morning air bites 
our faces and hands. 4. Strike for your altars and your fires! — 
Halleck. 5. Our birth is but a sleep and a forgetting. — Words¬ 
worth. 6. O wild West Wind, thou breath of Autumn’s being. 

— Shelley. 7. The mist of death was shed upon his eyes. — 
Homer. 8. The Assyrian came down like a wolf on the fold. 

— Byron. 9. His hands dangled a mile out of his sleeves. — 
Irving. 10. Now Rumor the messenger went about the street, 
telling the tale of the dire death and fate of the wooers . — Homer. 
11. All the world’s a stage. — Shakespeare. 12. The redskins 
were put to flight. 13. Swiftly, swiftly flew the ship. — Coleridge. 
14. Pleasures are like poppies spread. — Burns. 15. Thou, too, 
sail on, O Ship of State. — Longfellow. 16. Have you no respect 
for gray hairs? 17. The Puritan hated bear-baiting, not because 
it gave pain to thfe bear but because it gave pleasure to the spec¬ 
tators.— Macaulay. 18. Sport that wrinkled Care derides and 
Laughter holding both his sides. — Milton. 19. I have no spur 
to prick the sides of my intent. — Shakespeare. 20. I have been 
reading Stevenson. 21. Roll on, thou deep and dark blue Ocean, 
roll. — Byron. 22. At one stride comes the dark. — Coleridge. 
23. He has an iron muscle. 24. Walter the Doubter was exactly 
five feet six inches in height and six feet five inches in circumfer¬ 
ence. — Irving. 25. Red as a rose is she. — Coleridge. 26. Drink, 
the great fowler, had bagged one more. — Harrison. 27. Teach 
us, sprite or bird, what sweet thoughts are thine. — Shelley. 
28. His bump of humor is a dent. — Lincoln. 29. The pen is 
mightier than the sword. 30. The express train ran so fast that 
the mile posts looked like fence rails. 31. It is a village of five 
hundred chimneys. 32. He writes me letters on a typewriter 
suffering from an impediment in its speech. — Tarkington. 

33. The short evening flew away on gossamer wings. — Dickens. 

34. He bought a hundred head of cattle. 35. Life is made up of 
marble and mud. — Hawthorne. 36 Night’s candles are burnt 
out. — Shakespeare. 37. He has an axe to grind. 38. There is 
a tide in the affairs of men, which, taken at the flood, leads on to 
fortune. — Shakespeare. 39. His garments fitted him like a shirt 
on a handspike. — Joseph Lincoln. 40. I appeal from the decision 


FIGURES OF SPEECH 


435 


of the chair. 41. Most glorious Night/, thou wert not sent for 
slumber. — Byron. 42. Misfortune is a fine opiate for personal 
terror. 43. Milton! thou shouldst be living at this hour. — Words¬ 
worth. 44. What has the gray-haired prisoner done? Has murder 
stained his hand with gore? Not so; his crime is a fouler one — 
God made the old man poor. — Whittier. 45. One occasion trod 
upon the other’s heels. — Dickens. 46. You look about as fat 
as a stall-fed knitting needle. — White. 47. Life is a leaf of paper 
white, whereon each one of us may write his word or two.—- 
Lowell. 48. You have put the cart before the horse. 49. She 
sent the gentle sleep from Heaven, that slid into my soul. —- 
Coleridge. 50. They work to pass, not to know; and outraged 
Science takes her revenge.. They do pass, and they don’t know. 

— Huxley. 51. Princes and lords are but the breath of kings. 
52. It’s the joiliest house I was ever in. 53. An upright public 
official asks what recommends a man; a corrupt official, who. 
54. Uneasy lies the head that wears a crown. 55. Every man 
would live long, but no man would be old. 56. He employs a 
score of hands. 57. Maidens, like moths, are ever caught by glare. 

— Byron. 58. Youth should always reverence age. 59. The 
train flew at lightning speed. 60. The heavens smiled on us today. 
61. The harbor was crowded with masts. 62. After creeping along 
the utmost verge of the opaque puddle of obscurity, they had taken 
the downright plunge. — Hawthorne. 63. The tale of his ungentle 
past was scarred upon his face. — Locke. 



// 


APPENDIX 

V % 

VOICE 

American voice. Europeans think of Americans as loud- 
voiced and boastful. Henry James says that the American 
voice is “one of the stumbling-blocks of our continent/’ 
He adds, “It is easier to overlook any question of speech 
than to trouble about it, but then it is easier to snort or 
neigh, to growl or meow, than to articulate and intonate.” 
The French voice, the English voice, and the Italian voice, 
on the other hand, show training and conscious attention. 

Steady practice. Unfortunately voices are not suddenly 
or marvelously transformed. Practice “now and then” 
is almost worthless. Listless, half-hearted, lazy practice 
is a waste of time. Intelligent, enthusiastic practice for 
five minutes a day and the habit of listening to one’s 
own voice and the voices of others will insure marked 
improvement. 

Vocal apparatus. The vocal apparatus consists of the 
lungs, diaphragm, windpipe, larynx, vocal cords, glottis, 
pharynx, mouth, tongue, lips, cheeks, teeth, nasal ca\ ity, 

soft palate, and hard palate. 

Voice production. All voice is produced during exhala¬ 
tion. The air from the lungs is changed into voice by the 
vocal cords. These are two yellow semicircular, elastic 
tissues stretched across the larynx. When no voice is 
being produced, they are separated and peimit the aii to 
pass freely through the opening between them, which is 
shaped like the letter V. The cords are drawn together 
for the production of voice, which is the sound \\a\cs set 

437 


438 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


in motion by the vibration of the vocal cords as the 
column of air is forced out between them. This sound, 
which experiment has shown to be only a squeak, is in¬ 
creased and modified by the pharynx, mouth, and nasal 
cavity, which act like a megaphone or the horn of a 
phonograph. 

Voluntary and involuntary muscles. The muscles that 
regulate the vocal cords are involuntary. A person can’t 
change the pitch by thinking what the muscles and carti¬ 
lages controlling the pitch mechanism of the vocal cords 
are to do. But he can insure three conditions of good 
voice production: breath support, freedom, and placing. 

Breath support. Breath support includes taking and 
holding the breath. The lungs should be filled like a jug 
or a barrel, from the bottom up. Hence think of taking 
the breath down to the middle of the body. The result 
will be a lowering of the diaphragm and an expansion of 
the body centering near the waistline. Just to make sure 
that you are breathing properly, observe the action when 
you laugh or breathe easily while lying on your back. 

Breathing Cautions 

1. Do not raise the shoulders. 

2. Do not neglect to fill the upper part of the lungs. 

3. Do not overcrowd the lungs. Pupils frequently take too 
much breath and must expel a part as they begin to speak. Take 
just enough breath for a feeling of comfortable fulness. 

4. Frequent pauses to keep the lungs filled will give a force 
and vigor to flat, flabby, lifeless tones. 

Holding the breath. A proper use of the breath taken 
in is necessary. Many beginners let the breath rush out 
on the first few sounds and end the phrase or sentence 
feebly. Practice economy. Except in shouting, there 
should be a feeling of holding the breath back rather than 


VOICE 


439 


of forcing it out. Don’t let the chest fall. Keep the dia¬ 
phragm firm. A strong foundation is just as necessary for 
an even, clear, buoyant tone as for a skyscraper. 

Vocal freedom. Any attempt to do anything with the 
vocal mechanism may cause throatiness. If the muscles of 
the chin, pharynx, back of tongue, lower jaw, soft palate, 
or false vocal cords contract, they constrict the voice and 
make it harsh and hard. 

To relax the voice muscles and prevent throatiness — 

1. Practice yawning with the back of the tongue down and the 
tip against the lower teeth. Let the jaw drop easily and lazily. 
Test the mouth opening by placing three fingers between the 
teeth. 

2. Let the jaw drop easily as you speak. 

3. Keep the tongue relaxed and forward and the back part of 
the mouth large. Talk as if you had a hot potato in the back of 
your mouth and had to keep away from it. 

4. Think of the throat as a funnel through which the air passes. 

5. When speaking vigorously, apply the power at the waist 
rather than at the throat. 

6. Keep the stream of air or voice flowing smoothly and 
evenly. 

Voice placing. Voice placing suggests that the voice 
should have a striking point or center of resonance. It is 
well to think of the voice as hitting the roof of the mouth 
just behind the teeth. 

Resonance. Resonance is the enlargement of the voice 
resulting from its reverberation in the cavities ot the 
pharynx, mouth, and nose. The tuning fork and resonator 
illustrate the importance of resonance, as the resonator 
enlarges the sound produced by the tuning fork about two 
hundred fold. The megaphone is a more familiar illustra¬ 
tion. As resonance may enlarge the voice about six hun¬ 
dred per cent and also make it more pleasing, it is impor¬ 
tant to keep the pharynx and mouth free and large. 


440 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 

EXERCISES 

To Secure a Good Position for the Breathing Exercises 

Stand with head erect, chin in, chest lifted and arched, shoul¬ 
ders square, body erect, arms and hands naturally at the side, 
weight principally on the balls of the feet. 

1 

1. Raise arms forward. 

2. Swing arms sideward, turning palms up, muscles tense. 

3. Return to 1. 

4. Position. 

2 

1. Raise arms sideward. 

2. Turn palms up. Grow a half inch taller by stretching the 
body upward and pressing upward with the hands and the crown 
of the head. 

3. Position. 

3 

1. Raise arms sideward. 

2. Circle arms forward and backward slowly with muscles 
tense on the backward motion and muscles relaxed on the forward 
motion. 

3. Position. 

For Breath Support 

1. Inhale; exhale. Don’t raise the shoulders or overcrowd 
the lungs. 

2. Inhale; hold the breath; exhale. 

3. Inhale; exhale on s, letting out the breath slowly and 
steadily. 

4. Inhale; exhale on o. Make the sound steady. 

5. Count from one to twelve in a whisper. 


For Forward Placing and Resonance 

1. Hum m on a level tone and through the octave. Hum moo , 
mo, mah. 


VOICE 


441 


2. Count from twenty to twenty -nine, prolonging the ids. Direct 
the tone to the pupil farthest from you. 

3. Hum m gently. Then change to n by opening the mouth 
and raising the tip of the tongue to the hard palate. 

4. Practice ring-ring-ring, prolonging the ng. Practice in the 
same way sing, song, ring, wrong, ding, dong. 

For Freeing the Voice (Avoiding Throatiness) 

1. Inhale; exhale on ah prolonged musically. 

2. Give ah-vah-vah-vah-vah, taking a deep breath and opening 
the mouth well before each syllable. 

For Breath Support, Forward Placing, Vocal Freedom, Voice 
Projection, Brilliancy, and Resonance 

1. Count one, three, five, nine, inhaling before each count. 

2. Inhale; count from one to twelve, pausing for breath after 
three, six, and nine. Open the mouth to let the tone out. W atch 
it going down a long passageway. 

3. Inhale; count from one to twelve without pausing for breath. 
Begin softly and increase the force as you proceed. 

4. Give e, a, a, 6, 6, oo. Sustain on a level as in singing. Prac¬ 
tice also these sounds preceded by m , n , l in soft and moderately 
loud tones. 

5. Practice in a big round voice such passages as these: 

(1) Roll on, thou deep and dark blue Ocean, roll! 

(2) I impeach Warren Hastings of high crimes and misdemeanors. 

(3) Forward, the Light Brigade! 

(4) Charge, Chester, charge! 

(5) Thou, too, sail on, O Ship of State! 

Sail on, O Union, strong and great! 

(6) Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears. 

(7) W’en you see a man in woe, 

Walk right up and say “Hullo!” 

(8) Louder, louder chant the lay 
Waken, lords and ladies gay 

6. Practice your school or class yell. Aim to terrify 


442 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


your opponents by the volume of sound, without screeching or 
making yourself hoarse by tightening the throat muscles. Relax. 

7. Practice train calling: This train for Philadelphia, Harris¬ 
burg, Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, and the West. All aboard! 

8. Practice with rising, falling, and circumflex inflection and 
in a monotone e, d, a, 6, o, oo and one, three, five, nine. 

9. Count one, two, three, four, five, emphasizing in turn each 
number as in speech. 






/✓ 


PARLIAMENTARY PRACTICE 

Manuals. This chapter gives only the elements of 
parliamentary practice. The attempt is to cover the points 
needed in the school club or society. For details consult 
Robert’s Rules of Order, Gregg’s Parliamentary Law, or 
Gaines’s The New Cushing’s Manual. These authorities 
differ on some points because practice varies somewhat. 
The method of electing a temporary chairman is an 
example. As the wording of motions varies also, it is not 
necessary to memorize the exact words of this chapter or 
of any manual. 

Temporary organization. When individuals call together 
a group of people for just one meeting by newspaper 
notice, posters, or other announcement, a temporary organ¬ 
ization must be effected for the orderly transaction of 
business. A member may rise and say, “The meeting 
will please come to order. I nominate Mr. A as chairman. 
Those in favor of Air. A acting as chairman say aye. 
Those opposed say no.” If a majority vote aye, the mem¬ 
ber declares Mr. A elected and asks him to take the 
chair. If Mr. A is defeated, the member asks for another 

nomination. 

Instead, a member may rise and say, “The meeting 
will please come to order. Will some one nominate a 
chairman?” A nomination does not need a second. When 
the nominations have been made, the member calls loi 
ayes and noes on those nominated until some one leceives a 
majority. If Mr. A receives a majority, the member de¬ 
clares Mr. A elected. If Air. A does not receive a majority, 

the member calls for the ayes and noes on Mr. B. 

443 


444 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


The chairman elect may briefly thank the members for 
the honor and then say, “ Nominations for secretary are 
now in order.” The secretary may be elected in the 
manner just explained, by ballot, by show of hands, or by 
standing vote. 

The chairman may then state the object of the meeting 
or ask for a statement of the object of the meeting, and I 
call for the transaction of business by saying, “What is 
the pleasure of the assembly?” or “What business is to 
come before the meeting?” 

Permanent Organization 
First Meeting 

1. A temporary chairman and a temporary secretarj^ are elected 
in the manner explained in the preceding paragraphs. 

2. Some one may state the object of the meeting or move that 
a permanent organization be formed. 

3. A motion is made to appoint a committee on constitution and 
by-laws. The motion may state the number to be appointed. The 
chairman appoints the committee at the time or at a later time. Or 
the motion may name the members of the committee. 

Second Meeting 

1. The meeting is called to order. The minutes are read. The 
chairman says, “You have heard the minutes. Are there any cor¬ 
rections?” After a pause he says, “If there are no corrections, the 
minutes stand approved as read.” Corrections are generally adopted 
by common consent. On an important question of fact a vote may 
be necessary. 

2. The committee on constitution and by-laws reports its work 
complete and hands a copy to the secretary. 

3. A member moves that the constitution and by-laws be adopted. 

4. The chairman asks the secretary to read the constitution and 
by-laws one article at a time. After each article is read, he asks 
whether there are any amendments. If an amendment is offered, 
it is discussed and voted on. After the reading he says, “The entire 
constitution has been read and is open to amendment.” 




PARLIAMENTARY PRACTICE 445 

5. The president calls for a vote on the adoption of the constitu- 
tution and by-laws as amended. 

6. If the constitution and by-laws are adopted, permanent officers 
are elected. 

7. The meeting is open for the transaction of business. 

Choice of Officers 
Nominations 

1. Nominations may be made from the floor or by a nominating 
committee. By the second method other nominations are in order 
after the nominating committee has reported. 

2. A member says, “I nominate Mr. A.” The chair says, “Mr. A 
has been nominated,” and writes his name on the blackboard. 

3. The chairman may use his judgment about accepting a decli¬ 
nation or call for a vote of the assembly on it. 

4. A nomination does not need seconding. 

5. If the motion to close nominations is seconded and carried, 
further nominations are shut off. 

6. Without a motion, if there are no further nominations, the 
chairman may declare the nominations closed and say, “You may 
prepare your ballots.” 

7. One who makes or seconds a nomination may at that time 
speak of the fitness of the candidate. 

Election 

1. To save time, a standing or a show-of-hands vote is sometimes 
permissible. The candidates by these methods are voted on in the 
order of nomination. 

2. Commonly election by secret ballot is required by the 
constitution. 

3. A member may vote for one who was not nominated. 

4. Unless the constitution or a standing rule provides otherwise, 
a majority is necessary to elect. 

5. If no candidate receives a majority on the first ballot, the 
members ballot again. 

6. On the second and succeeding ballots it is permissible to vote 
against the candidate one nominated. 

7. By motion the one receiving the fewest votes may be elimi¬ 
nated after each ballot. 

8. If there is but one candidate, a member may rise and say, “I 





440 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


move that the secretary cast one ballot for Mr. X for treasurer.’ 1 i 
If there is no objection to the motion, the assembly proceeds to 
ballot. If no objection is raised to the motion and the motion is 
carried, the secretary writes the ballot, rises, and says, “Mr. Chair¬ 
man, Mr. X receives one vote for the office of treasurer, and there 
is no vote for any other candidate.” The chairman then declares 
Mr. X elected. 

Constitution and by-laws. The constitution contains the 
most important and permanent rules of the society. The i 
by-laws are rules somewhat less important and permanent 
than those included in the constitution. 

The constitution commonly includes: 

1. The name and purpose of the organization. 

2. Qualifications for membership and method of admission to ! 
society. 

3. Time and manner of electing officers, and duties of each. 

4. Appointment and duties of standing committees. 

5. Time and place of meetings. 

6. Method of amending the constitution. 

The by-laws may include: 

1. Attendance necessary for a quorum. 

2. The work on parliamentary practice accepted as authority. 

3. Fees and dues. 

4. Order of business. 

5. Method of amending the by-laws. 

The by-laws may contain also details about membership, 
officers, meetings, fines, and standing committees. There 
is no sharp line between constitution matter and by-law 
matter. 

The order of business should be somewhat like this: 

1. Roll call. 

2. Reading and adoption of minutes. 

3. Reports of standing committees. 

4. Reports of special committees. 

5. Unfinished business. 

6. New business. 

7. Program or speaker. 

8. Adjournment. 







PARLIAMENTARY PRACTICE 


447 


Rights and Duties of Members and 

Officers 

Chairman or Presideyit 

1. The chairman calls the meeting to order at the appointed 
time, announces the business to be transacted, announces the 
result of a vote, decides points of order, and preserves order in 
the meeting. 

2. When a motion is made and seconded, the chairman says, 
“It has been moved and seconded that this club challenge the 
Lincoln Club to a joint debate. Are there any remarks on the 
motion?” or “Is there any discussion?” He should be careful 
to use the exact words of the maker of the motion and may ask 
the secretary to read the motion. The chairman may require 
the maker of a motion to hand it in writing to the secretary. 
When, after some discussion, no member rises to debate, the chair¬ 
man says, “Are there any further remarks? If not, are you ready 
for the question?” If there is no reply or if members call out 
“Question!” he says, “It has been moved and seconded that this 
club challenge the Lincoln Club to a joint debate. Those in favor 
say aye. Those opposed say no. The motion is carried (or lost).” 
If the chairman is in doubt, he says, “Those in favor of the motion 
will rise.” After the count, he says, “You may be seated. Those 
opposed will rise.” After a voice vote any member may call for 
a standing or show-of-hands vote by saying, “Mr. Chairman, 
I call for a division.” 

3. The president sits except when stating a motion, putting 
a question to vote, announcing the result of a vote, and speaking 
upon a question of order. 

4. To obtain the floor, a member rises and says, “Mister 
Chairman” (or “Madam Chairman”). The chairman says 
“Mr. X.” When a number wish to obtain the floor at the same 
time, the chairman recognizes first: 

(1) The maker of the motion if he has not spoken. 

(2) A member on the opposite side from the one who has just 

spoken. 

(3) One who hasn’t spoken on the question. 

(4) One who seldom rises to speak. 




448 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


In other cases lie gives the floor to the one who first addresses the 
chair. If a member stands while another is speaking to make sure 
of obtaining the floor, raises his hand instead of addressing the 
chair, or otherwise makes himself objectionable, the chairman 
should not recognize him. 

5. The chairman should always call for a second to a motion 
by saying, “Is the motion seconded?” or “Is there a second to 
to the motion?” and declare the motion lost for want of a second 
if there is no response. A second, however, is in order even after 
this announcement. The one seconding a motion need not rise 
or obtain the floor. 

6. The chairman should warn a member who is not speaking 
on the question, and if he does not then keep to the point deprive 
him of the floor. 

7. If the chairman wishes to debate a question, he should call 
to the chair the vice president, the secretary, or another member, 
take a seat in the assembly, and speak only when recognized by 
the chair. He should likewise call a member to the chair to put 
a motion which refers to the chairman. 

8. The chairman may vote when the voting is by ballot and in 
other cases when his vote would defeat the motion by making a 
tie or carry it by breaking a tie. For example, if the vote on a 
motion is 8 to 7, the chairman may vote no, thus making a tie and 
defeating the motion. 

9. By unanimous consent the chairman may take any action 
that does not violate the constitution or by-laws. He says, “If 
there are no objections, the next meeting will be held at 3.15 
instead of 3.30.” After a pause he says, “It is so ordered.” 
If objection is raised, a motion is necessary. 

10. The chairman should be prompt and decisive in his rulings, 
should not himself waste time, and should not permit members 
to delay the business to be transacted. 

11. The chairman refers to himself as the chair or uses a 
pronoun of the third person. 

Vice President 

The vice president should render valuable aid to the president 
and be ready to take the president’s place at any time. 


PARLIAMENTARY PRACTICE 


449 


Secretary 

1. The secretary should keep an accurate record of everything 
that is done by a meeting. The minutes should include kind of 
meeting, name of body, time of meeting, name of chairman, 
motions lost as well as motions passed, names of members 
appointed to committees, important remarks, and the like. 

2. He notifies members of appointment on committees, 
and regular or special meetings. 

3. He assists the president by counting in a division, by reading 
the exact wording of a motion, or by giving information about 
unfinished business or action already taken by the meeting. 

4. He is custodian of the constitution, by-laws, minutes, and 
correspondence. 

5. He carries on correspondence and reports to the society, 
calls the roll and keeps a record of the attendance, and in the 
absence of the president and vice president calls the meeting to 
order. 

Treasurer 

i 

1. The treasurer should keep in ink a detailed record of all 
sums received and expended and be ready at any meeting to 
make a complete report. The treasurer’s book should be 
clear to any member who may be called upon to audit it. 

2. He should give receipts for dues and assessments and 
secure a receipt when money is paid out. 

3. The by-laws or constitution should specify how bills are 
to be paid. In many organizations the rule is that money is to 
be paid out only after it has been voted by the society. 


Committees 

1. The constitution or by-laws may provide for the appoint¬ 
ment of an executive committee, a program committee, a member¬ 
ship committee, a publicity committee, a refreshment committee, 
and the like. These are standing committees with a fixed term 
of office. A special committee is appointed for a particular task. 
For example, the club may authorize the appointment of a com¬ 
mittee to devise a plan for raising funds for the purchase of medals 


450 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


to be presented. Such a committee ceases to exist when it has 
done its work and reported to the society. The society either 
takes no action on a committee report or votes to adopt it. If 
the committee recommends a public mock trial to raise money, 
a vote to adopt the report means that the mock trial is to be held. 

2. Committees are commonly appointed by the presiding officer. 
The first member named is the temporary chairman unless another 
is specified. If no chairman is named, the committee may elect 
its own chairman. 

3. A committee meets at the call of the chairman. A majority 
of a committee constitute a quorum. 

Rules of Debate 

1. Do not refer to members by name. Say “the preceding 
speaker,” “the chair,” “the secretary.” 

2. Don’t rise to speak a second time unless everybody has 
had an opportunity to speak. 

3. Most societies have a rule which limits each member to two 
speeches on a motion and limits a speech to ten minutes. 

4. Address your remarks to the chairman and stick to the 
question. 

5. Speak only once on a question of order. 

6. A member may rise to debate up to the time that the neg¬ 
ative vote is called for. 

7. After a member has obtained the floor, he may hold it 
except for the question of consideration, a point of order, a call for 
the order of the day, a question of privilege, and a call to enter 
on the minutes a motion to reconsider. 

Precedence of Motions 

Privileged Motions 

Fix time for next meeting A, D?, R (Symbols are explained on 
page 451.) 

Adjourn (if next meeting time has been fixed) r 
Take a recess A?, r 

Question of privilege D, A, -F?, T, P, C, R 
Call for the order of the day r, -S, -F, R 


PARLIAMENTARY PRACTICE 


451 


Subsidiary Motipns 

Objection to consideration of question §, -F, -S, R 
Lay on the table r, R? 

Previous question §, r, R 

Postpone to a certain time r, D?, A?, R 

Commit D + , A, r, R 

Amend an amendment D, R 

Amend D, A, T, R 

Postpone indefinitely D + , R 

Main motion or motion to repeal D, A, P, C, T, R 

1. Amend and postpone indefinitely are of the same rank. 
Neither yields to the other. 

2. The question mark after a symbol indicates that there are 
exceptions to the general statement. 

3. A motion in this table yields to any motion above it. For 
example, if a motion is before the house, an amendment is made 
and seconded, and a motion to adjourn is made and seconded, 
the motion to adjourn is acted on first. If it is lost, the amend¬ 
ment is discussed and voted on. If the amendment is carried, 
the motion as amended is discussed and voted on. 

Incidental Motions 

Suspend the rules § 

Point of order -F, -S 

Appeal from the decision of the chair T, D?, R 
Withdraw a motion R 

Any incidental motion may be applied to any other motion and 
is acted upon before the motion to which it is applied. 

Meaning of Symbols 

A — Amendable. 

D — Debatable. Previous question applicable. 

D + — Opens whole question for debate. Previous question applicable. 
§ — Two-thirds vote necessary. 

-S — Second not required. 

-F — In order when another has the floor. 

R — May be reconsidered. 

T — May be laid on the table. 

C — May be referred to a committee. 

P — May be postponed definitely or indefinitely, 
r — Renewable after other business. 


452 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


Common Motions Classified According 

to Use 

Postpone action. 

1. Lay on the table. 

2. Postpone to a certain time. 

Defeat the question. 

1. Objection to consideration. 

2. Postpone indefinitely. 

3. Lay on the table. 

Stop debate. 

1. Previous question. 

Change the motion. 

1. Amend. 

Close a meeting. 

1. Adjourn. 


Main Motion and Motion to Repeal 

“I move that this society hold a declamation contest.” 

1. A main motion is not in order if any other business is before 
the meeting. 

2. If the motion is defeated, it may not be introduced again 
at the same session. 


Postpone Indefinitely 

“I move that the question be postponed indefinitely.” 

1. When a motion is postponed indefinitely, it is really de¬ 
feated because it may not be considered again during the session. 

2. Sometimes leaders use this motion to find out how many 
are opposed to the original motion. 

Amend 

“I move to amend the motion by striking out declamation 
and inserting the word speaking.” 

1. To amend means to change. The wording of the motion 
is changed by an amendment. 


PARLIAMENTARY PRACTICE 


453 


2. A change in the motion may be made by adding, subtract¬ 
ing, substituting, or dividing. 

3. By unanimous consent a maker may change his motion 
without moving to amend. 

4. An amendment may be substituted for the entire motion 
originally proposed. 

5. The chairman should rule a silly amendment out of order. 

6. An amendment must keep to the question but may be 
hostile to it. An amendment to add not or eliminate not should 
be ruled out of order. 

7. When an amendment is laid on the table, it takes with it 
the original question. 


Amend an Amendment 

“I move to amend the amendment by inserting the word 
extemporaneous before speakingA 

1. The amendment to the amendment is acted on before the 
amendment or original motion. To illustrate, after discussion a 
vote is taken on inserting extemporaneous. If the meeting votes 
to change the amendment, the amendment as amended, that the 
words extemporaneous speaking be substituted for the word declama¬ 
tion, is discussed and voted on. If the amendment as amended 
is lost, the original motion, that the club hold a declamation 
contest, is discussed and voted on. 

2. Distinguish between changing an amendment and changing 
the original motion. I move to amend the amendment b\ 
inserting the words on December 20 after contest is out of oidei 
because the change desired is a second amendment, which is in 
order after the first amendment has been disposed of. 


Commit 

“I move that the matter be referred to a committee.”. 

“I move to refer the question to the executive committee. ’ 

1. The motion is useful when further investigation is desirable. 

2. Amendments may change the size or selection of the com¬ 
mittee or the time for its report. 


454 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


3. When the motion does not specif 3 % it is usually understood 
that the chairman is authorized to appoint a committee of three 
members. 

Postpone to a Certain Time 

“I move that this question be postponed until the next meeting.” 

1. The motion gives time for consideration. 

2 . At the time set the matter comes up under old business or 
may be called up as an order of the da}'. 

3. Debate must concern the wisdom of the postponement. 

4. A change in the time at which the matter is to be considered 
is the only amendment in order. 


Previous Questio7i 

“I move the previous question.” 

After a second to the motion the chairman says, a The previous 
question has been called for. Shall debate now be closed?” 

1. The motion stops debate and requires a vote on the original 
question. 

2. If a main motion and an amendment are before the house, 
the previous question unlimited requires a vote on both the amend¬ 
ment and the main motion without further debate. To limit the 
closing of debate to the amendment, the motion should be, “I 
move the previous question on the amendment.” 

3. The motion to limit debate, like the previous question, 
requires a two-thirds vote. 


Lay on the Table 

“I move that the question be laid on the table.” 

1. A motion laid on the table is really lost unless a majority 
vote to take it from the table. Hence the motion is used both to 
delay action and to defeat a motion. 

2. If the motion to la} r on the table carries, it may not be 
reconsidered. 


PARLIAMENTARY PRACTICE 455 

Objection to Consideration of Question 

“I object to the consideration of this question.” 

1 . This motion is used to dispose of improper motions with¬ 
out debate. 

2 . The objection is in order only before the question has been 
debated. 

Suspension of Rules 

“I move to suspend the rule which prevents a member from 
speaking three times on a motion and move also that a member 
be permitted to speak as often as he wishes on this question.” 

1. To suspend the rules is to permit action contrary to the 
standing rules of the club or to parliamentary practice. The 
constitution is never suspended. The by-laws may be set aside 
only if they contain the statement that certain sections may be 
suspended. 

Withdrawal of a Motion 

“I move that the consent of the meeting be granted for the 
withdrawal of the motion.” 

1 . Before a motion has been stated by the chairman, the maker 
has the privilege of withdrawing it. After it has been stated by 
the chair, he may withdraw it only by unanimous consent or 
on motion to withdraw. 

Question of Order 

“I rise to a point of order.” 

Chairman. “State your point of order.” 

“My point of order is that parliamentary rules are being 
violated because a majority is necessary for election. 

Chairman. “Your point of order is well taken. Prepare your 

ballots again.” 

1 . A point of order may properly be raised if the chairman 
permits a violation of the constitution, by-laws, 01 pailiamentary 
law. 

2 . If a member is disorderly or discourteous in debate, the 
chairman names him, gives him an opportunity to explain his 


456 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


actions, and then requires him to withdraw from the room. The 
assembly then decides to overlook the offense or to punish the 
member by a reprimand, fine, or expulsion. 

Appeal from the Decision of the Chair 

“I appeal from the decision of the chair.” 

Chairman. “ Shall the decision of the chair stand as the judg¬ 
ment of the assembly?” 

1. The chairman may state the reasons for his decision without 
leaving the chair. 

2. Unless a vote is being taken, an appeal should be made 
at the time of the chairman’s decision of the point of order. 

3. A member may speak but once. 

4. If the chair is overruled, he takes the action approved bj T 
the assembly. 

Call for the Order of the Day 

“1 call for the order of the day.” 

1. Sometimes an assembly decides to consider a matter at a 
definite time. When that hour arrives, other business gives way 
if the call for the order of the day is approved by unanimous 
consent or carried. 

Question of Privilege 

“I rise to a question of privilege.” 

Chairman. 11 State your question of privilege.” 

‘‘I move that a member be appointed to stop the noise outside.” 

1. Privileged questions relate to the rights of the meeting and 
of individual members. Examples are disorder, poor ventilation, 
and lack of chairs, heat, or light. 

2. The chairman decides (subject to appeal) whether the ques¬ 
tion is really a question of privilege. 

Take a Recess 

“I move that we take a recess of ten minutes.” 

1. The only amendment in order is one that changes the length 
of the recess. 


PARLIAMENTARY PRACTICE 


457 


2. A quorum is not necessary for action on this motion. 

3. After the recess business is resumed at the point at which 
it was interrupted. 


Adjourn 

“I move we adjourn.” 

1. A quorum is not necessary for a vote on adjournment. 

2. If the motion to adjourn also fixes the time of the next 
meeting (I move we adjourn to meet on Thursday at three o’clock), 
the rules for a main motion apply. 

3. The motion is not in order while a member is speaking or 
while a vote is being taken. 


Fix Time or Place for Next Meeting 

“I move that the next meeting be held on December 22 at 
3 p.m.” 

1. This motion is of highest rank because, if the constitution 
and by-laws do not specify the regular meeting place and time 
of the body, there must be every opportunity during a meeting 
to set the time of the next one. 

2. It is debatable if no other question is before the meeting. 

Reconsider 

The details about the motions to reconsider are complicated. 
Only the main facts about the unprivileged form, which is in 
common use, are given. 

1. If the motion is carried, the original question is again before 
the assembly for consideration. 

2. The motion must be made by one who voted with the 
majority. 

3. The motion must be made at the meeting on which the 
original vote was taken or at the following meeting. 

Session and meeting. A session is a meeting or series 
of meetings in which there is no break in the business 
transacted. The business is taken up at the new meeting 


458 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


without the minutes or a call for old business. A session 
of Congress lasts for months. In the ordinary society each 
meeting is a session. 

Use and abuse of parliamentary motions. In Lowry’s 

Washington Close-ups , the chapter headed From the House 
Gallery shows how intelligent men sometimes waste time 
in parliamentary wrangling. In a meeting motions should 
never be introduced to confuse the chairman or delay 
business. The purpose of parliamentary law is to secure 
a speedy expression of the will of the majority. School 
practice in handling motions is like finger exercises in 
music or voice and body exercises in speaking. No speaker 
practices voice exercises before an audience. He does, 
however, use his voice. Likewise practice in presiding 
and making motions prepares a person to take part intelli¬ 
gently in the transaction of business in any meeting. 


EXERCISES 

1. First, effect a temporary organization. Let A move that 
the class adopt a uniform for all members, B amend the motion 
by specifying the kind of uniform, and C amend the amendment 
with a change in the uniform. 

2. Let D move that the class organize a literary club, E amend 
the motion by substituting book for literary, F move the previous 
question on the amendment, and G move to lay on the table. 

3. Let H move that the class hold a party or picnic, I amend 
by specifying the time, J move to postpone the question to the 
next recitation, K move to refer the matter to a committee, L 
rise to a question of privilege. 

4. Let others make main motions and apply the subsidiarj', 
privileged, and incidental motions. 


// 


Present: see 


Active 

Singular 

1. I see 

2. you see 

3. he sees 


1. I saw 

2. you saw 

3. he saw 


1. I shall see 

2. you will see 

3. he will see 


1. I have seen 

2. you have seen 
3- he has seen 


CONJUGATION 

Principal Parts 

Past: saw Past Participle: seen 


Voice 


Indicative Mood 


Voice Passive 

Present Tense 
Plural Singular 


we see 
you see 
they see 


I am seen 
you are seen 
he is seen 


Past 

we saw 
you saw 
they saw 


Tense 

I was seen 
you were seen 
he was seen 


Plural 

we are seen 
you are seen 
they are seen 


we were seen 
you were seen 
they were seen 


Future Tense 

we shall see I shall be seen we shall be seen 

you will see you will be seen you will be seen 

they will see he will be seen they will be seen 

Present Perfect Tense 

we have seen I have been we have been 

seen seen 

you have seen you have been you have been 

seen seen 

they have seen he has been they have been 

seen seen 


459 


400 


COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 


Past Perfect Tense 


1 . 

I had seen 

we had seen 

I had been seen 

we had been 






seen 

2. 

you had 

seen 

you had seen 

you had been 

you had been 





seen 

seen 

3. 

he had seen 

they had seen 

he had been 

they had been 

* 




seen 

seen 




Future Perfect Tense 


1 . 

I shall 

have 

we shall have 

I shall have 

we shall have 


seen 


seen 

been seen 

been seen 

2. 

you will 

have 

you will have 

you will have 

you will have 


seen 


seen 

been seen 

been seen 

3. 

he will 

have 

they will have 

he will have 

they will have 


seen 


seen 

been seen 

been seen 


Subjunctive Mood 
Present Tense 

if I, you, he see if I, you, he be seen 

if we, you, they see if we, you, they be seen 


Past Tense 

if I, you, he saw if I, you, he were seen 

if we, you, they saw if we, you, they were seen 

Present Perfect Tense 

if I, you, he have seen if I, you, he have been seen 

if we, you, they have seen . if we, you, they have been seen 


Past Perfect Tense 

if I, you, he had seen if I, you, he had been seen 

if we, you, they had seen if we, you, they had been seen 


Imperative Mood 

Present Tense 


2. see 


be seen 


CONJUGATION 


461 


Infinitives „ 

Present, to see Present, to be seen 

Past, to have seen Past, to have been seen 

Participles 

Present, being seen 
Past, seen, having been seen 

PRACTICE 

Write out the conjugation of to be and to strike. 

Emphatic Form 
Indicative Mood 

Present, I, you, we, you, they do see, he does see 
Past, I, you, he, we, you, they did see 

Subjunctive Mood 

Present, if I, you, he, we, you, they do see 
Past, if I, you, he, we, you, they did see 

Imperative Mood 

Present, do see 


Present, seeing 
Past, having seen 


Progressive Form 

I am seeing, I was seeing, I shall be seeing, I have been seeing, etc. 


PRINCIPAL PARTS OF VERBS 


Present Tense 

arise 

awake 

bear (carry) 

beat 

begin 

bend 

bet 

bid (command) 

bid (offer) 

bite 

break 

bring 

burst 

choose 

cling 

come 

cost 

do 

draw 

drink 

drive 

eat 

fall 

flow 

fly 

forget 

freeze 

get 

give 

go 

grow' 


Past Tense 
arose 

awoke, awaked 

bore 

beat 

began 

bent 

bet 

bade, bid 

bid 

bit 

broke 

brought 

burst 

chose 

clung 

came 

cost 

did 

drew 

drank 

drove 

ate 

fell 

flowed 

flew 

forgot 

froze 

got 

gave 

went 

grew 


Past Participle 

arisen 

awaked 

borne 

beaten 

begun 

bent 

bet 

bidden, bid 

bid 

bitten 

broken 

brought 

burst 

chosen 

clung 

come 

cost 

done 

drawn 

drunk 

driven 

eaten 

fallen 

flow'ed 

flow'll 

forgotten, forgot 

frozen 

got 

given 

gone 

grown 


462 


PRINCIPAL • PARTS OF VERBS 463 


Present Tense 

Past Tense „ 

Past Participle 

hang 

hung 

hung 

hang (on gallows) 

hanged 

hanged 

hit 

hit 

hit 

hurt 

hurt 

hurt 

know 

knew 

known 

lay 

laid 

laid 

lead 

led 

led 

leave 

left 

left 

lend 

lent 

lent 

let 

let 

let 

lie (recline) 

lay 

lain 

light 

lighted, lit 

lighted, lit 

lose 

lost 

lost 

pay 

paid 

paid 

put 

put 

put 

quit 

quitted, quit 

quitted, quit 

read 

read 

read 

rid 

rid 

rid 

ride 

rode 

ridden 

ring 

rang 

rung 

rise 

rose 

risen 

run 

ran 

run 

see 

saw 

seen 

set 

set 

set 

shake 

shook 

shaken 

show 

showed 

shown 

shrink 

shrank 

shrunk 

sing 

sang 

sung 

sink 

sank 

sunk 

sit 

sat 

sat 

slay 

slew 

slain 

sow 

sowed 

sowed, sown 

speak 

spoke 

spoken 

spit 

spit 

spit 

spring 

sprang 

sprung 

steal 

stole 

stolen 

stride 

strode 

stridden 


464 

COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 

Present Tense 

Past Tense 

Past Participle 

strike 

struck 

struck 

strive 

strove 

striven 

swear 

swore 

sworn 

swim 

swam 

swum 

swing 

swung 

swung 

take 

took 

taken 

teach 

taught 

taught 

tear 

tore 

torn 

thrive 

throve, thrived 

thriven, thrived 

throw 

threw 

thrown 

wake 

woke, waked 

woke, waked 

wear 

wore 

worn 

wring 

wrung 

wrung 

write 

wrote 

written 


In a few cases another form is an accepted colloquialism; as, 
drank as the past participle of drink, gotten as the past participle 
of get, dove as the past tense of dive. 


// 


SUGGESTED MARKING SYMBOLS 

A symbol placed at the beginning of a composition calls atten¬ 
tion to a serious or repeated error. 

A — Arrangement. Improve the order of the sentence. 
Act — Change verb from passive to active voice. 

C — Connective. Rewrite the sentence. 

cl — Clearness. Make your meaning perfectly clear. 

Cap — Capital misused or needed. 

F — Force. Sentence lacks strength, vim, vigor. 
gr — Grammar. Correct the syntax. 
hw — Poor handwriting. 
id — Faulty idiom. 

K — Awkward or clumsy. Rewrite the sentence. 

L — Sentence too loosely constructed. 

MS — Manuscript slovenly. 
p — Punctuation. 

QA — Question not answered or problem not solved. 

Rep _ Unjustifiable repetition of word or thought. 

S — Sentence. Begin a new sentence at the point indicated. 
Not £__Not a sentence. Complete the principal clause. 
sp — Spelling. 

Syl — Syllabication. Divide only between syllables. 

T — Wrong tense. 

U — Unity. Rewrite the sentence. 

W — Wrong word. See the dictionary. 

WO — Write out. Don’t abbreviate or use the arabic numerals. 
11 — Structure should be parallel. 

— Paragraph. 

^A, %C, If U, If F — Paragraph arrangement, connectives, unity, 
force. 

# — Spacing or margin. 
d or D — Omit word or words indicated. 

A —Supply word or words omitted. 

? — Statement doubtful or untrue. 

465 


INDEX 


/ 


Abbreviations, 114, 119 
Accuracy, 186, 317 
Acknowledgment, letter of, 123 
Address of letter, 114, 144; en¬ 
velope, 120 

Adjectives, 273, 308, 311, 312 
Adjustment, letter of, 126-129 
Adverbs, 273, 308, 311, 312 
Advertising, 237-239 
Agreement of verb and subject, 294; 

of pronoun and antecedent, 297 
Aim, composition, 56; speech, 103; 

argument, 168 
Allegory, 431 
Alliteration, 269 

Americanization of Edward Bok, 
The , 30 

Amphibrach, 265 
Analysis, 278-288, 364-369 
Anapest, 264, 266 

And, overuse of, 99, 321; use of, 46 
Animals, 79, 80 
Antecedent, 297 
Antithesis, 433 
Any one, 295 
Apostrophe, 362, 363 
Apostrophe (figure), 432 
Application, letter of, 130-133 
Argument, 168-196; informal, 168- 
174 

Arrangement, sentence, 317, 323- 
326, 334, 335; narration, 25; 
paragraph, 44, 48, 54, 55; compo¬ 
sition 64, 65, 79; explanation, 
83; argument, 193; write-up, 205; 
description, 153 
Article, 309 


Articulation, 98, 392-416 
Assertion, 168, 193 
At the Circus, 213 
Audibility, 3, 98 
Audience, before an, 98-101 
Autobiography, Franklin’s, 52 
Awkwardness, 319 . 

Balanced sentence, 339 
Ballad, 270, 271 
Bear Story, A, 25 
Bell Boy, The, 158 
Birds, 232 

Blank verse, 269, 272 
Block style, 113, 121 
Body of letter, 117, 145 
Bok, Edward, 30 

Books, 102; about newspaper, 210, 
211; of short stories, 23; report, 
220, 221; class, 226-235 
Bow, 101 
Brackets, 362 
Breathing, 98, 438, 440 
Brevity, 24, 84, 105, 117, 336 
Brief, 178-183 

Bryan, William Jennings, 169 
Building or structure, 160 
Building something, 89, 90 
Business, 96 
Business letter, 112-142 
But, overuse of, 99; use of, 46 
By-laws, 446 

Can, may, 382 
Canceling words, 16 
Capitalization, 348-353, 417; com¬ 
position title, 15; outline, 58; let¬ 
ter, 117, 119 


466 


INDEX 


467 


Captains of industry, 102 
Caring for something, 91 
Carpentry for Boys, 48 
Cartoons, 96 
Case, 274, 292, 363 
Chairman, 447 
City or community, 109 
Civics, 60 

Claim letter, 124, 125 
Class paper, 225, 226 
Clause, 273, 274, 281, 321, 356 
Clearness, 66-71, 79; explanation, 
82, 85, 88; letter, 117, 122; 

debate, 186; sentence, 331 
Climax, sentence, 335; narration, 24 
Clincher sentence, 43 
Coherence. See Arrangement, Con¬ 
nectives, and Clearness. 

Collection letter, 133-135 
Colleges, 109 
Colloquialism, 379 
Colon, 360 
Comma, 354 
Comma blunder, 289 
Committees, 449 
Comparative degree, 308 
Complimentary close, 119, 144 
Composition, the whole, 56-81 
Conciseness, 24, 84, 105, 117, 336 
Conclusion, composition, 74; narra¬ 
tion, 24; speech, 105; sales 
letter, 139; brief, 179, 182; 

debate, 188; outline, 58 
Condensation, 252 
Conjugation, 459 
Conjunctions, 274, 282 
Conklin, George, 51, 79 
Connectives, sentence, 328; para¬ 
graph, 45, 49, 54, 55; classifica¬ 
tion of, 46; composition, 65, 66, 
79; explanation, 83; description, 
154 

Consonants, 393, 394-402, 409-412 
Constancy Is More than (onsist- 
ency, 94 

Constitution, 446 


Contradiction in conversation, 8 
Contrast, 25, 49, 68, 257 
Conversation, 1-14, 36, 257 
Correcting proof, 239-244 
Couplet, 270 

Courtesy, 10, 117, 125, 126 
Crane, Dr. Frank, 93, 94, 198 
Criticism, compositions, 69, 72, 75- 
78; paragraphs, 50-55; speech, 
105, 106; description, 156; write¬ 
ups, 199-202; advertisements, 
239; narratives, 26-29 
Current topics, 102 

Dactyl, 264, 266 
Dash, 361 

Debate, 174-196, 450; questions, 
193-196 

Description, 64, 152-167; impres¬ 
sionistic, 153, 164-166 
Deserted Farm, A, 160 
Details, description, 153 
Development, paragraph, 42 
Devices to Make Housekeeping 
Easier, 77 

Diacritical marks, 393 
Dickens, Charles, 157 
Dictation, 245 
Dictator, 121 
Diction. See Words. 

Dictionary, 371 
Dimeter, 265 
Diphthongs, 394, 395 
Direct discourse, 24 
Directions, how to give, 93 
Doing something, 86-89 

Editorial, 208-210, 221-224 
Ei and ie, 418 
Election, 445 
Electric Bell, The, 85 
Electrical Engineering, 228 
Eliot, 43 

Emphasis. See Force. 

Emphasis in reading and speaking, 
100, 256-259 


468 


INDEX 


Enunciation, 392-416 
Envelope, how addressed, 120 
Essay, informal or familiar, 217-219 
Ethics and manners, 73 
Evening Mail, the, 199 
Every , 295 

Exclamation point, 361 
Experience, 25-37 

Explanation (or exposition), 82-96; 
argument, 192 

Extemporaneous speaking, 97-111 
Eyes, 98, 260 

Fable, 431 

Famous men and women, 102 
Feet, metrical, 264 
Figures of speech, 427-435; de¬ 
scription, 154 
First Punishment, My, 28 
First Visit to a Dentist, My, 28 
Folding a letter, 122 
Force, sentence, 333; paragraph, 
49, 54, 55; composition, 71-74, 
79; debate, 193 
Franck, Harry A., 51 
Franklin, Benjamin, 52 
Franklin’s method, 246 
Fried Frogs’ Eggs, 27 
From, than, 311 
Full Dress, 157 

Games, 92 

Genitive case. See Possessive case. 
Gerund, 285 
Giving to Beggars, 72 
Globe, the, 200 
Good Citizen, The, 62 
Good Housekeeping, 90, 91 
Grammar, 273-317; parts of the 
sentence, 273-288; case of pro¬ 
nouns, 292; verb and subject, 
294; pronoun and antecedent, 
297; compound personal pronoun 
and relative pronoun, 299; prin¬ 
cipal parts of verbs, 300, 462-464; 
sit, set , lie, lay, rise, raise, 301; 


subjunctive mood, 302; tense, 
303; shall, will , should, would, 
306; adjectives and adverbs, 308; 
wrong part of speech, 311; syn¬ 
tactical redundance, 312; incor¬ 
rect omissions, 313 
Grant, General, 30 

Hands, 98 
Handwriting, 16-19 
Heading of letter, 114, 143 
Headlines, 202-204 
Health, 233, 234 
Heptameter, 265 
Herald, Boston, 52 
Hexameter, 265 
History, 80 
Home, 66 
Homonyms, 419 
How a Safe Is Raised, 32 
How to Bxdld a Lean-to, 89 
How to Fell a Tree and Cut It into 
Firewood, 88 

How to Take Care of a Furnace, 78 
How Yeast Does Its Work, 78 
Humor, 214, 217 
Hyperbole, 433 
Hyphen, 15, 418 

Iambus, 264, 265 

Illustrations, 68, 84, 85, 86, 88, 89, 
93 

Imagination, 24, 37, 39 
In Flanders Fields, 253 
Indention, 15, 58 
Indirect discourse, 24 
Indirect question, 317 
Industries, 234 
Infinitive, 285 
Inflection, 25S-260 
Information, letter asking for, 128, 
130 

Ink, 15 

Interrogation point, 360 
Introduction, composition, 74; out¬ 
line, 58; narration, 24; speech, 


INDEX 


4G9 


104; sales letter, 138; brief, 178, 
179; debate, 183, 184, 192 
Invitation, 150 
Irony, 433 

Irregular verbs, 462-464 
Irving, Washington, 156 
Issues, main, 175-178, 192 

Keeping, 343 

Lay , lie, 301 
Leads, 204, 205 
Lecturer, A, 157 
Legibility, 16-19 

Letters, business, 112-142; friendly, 
143-151; to editors, 224 
Lie, lay, 301 
Like, as, 311 
Listener, the good, 3 
Literary club, 108 
Loose sentence, 339 

Machines, 85 

Magazines, 235-237 

Make-up of newspaper, 197 

Making something, 89, 90 

Mannerisms, 100 

Manners, 73; in conversation, 6 

Manuscript, how to prepare, 15-19 

Margin, 15; letter, 118 

Marking symbols, 465 

May, can, 382 

McCrae, 253 

Memorizing, 263 

Metaphor, 427-430 

Meter, 264 

Metonymy, 432 

Money, 108 

Monometer, 265 

Mood, subjunctive, 302 

Motions, 450-457 

Motor Life and the Saturday Evening 
Post, 235 
Mouth, 98 

Movie, 107; censorship, 179-188 
Mythology, 103 


Narration, 20-41, 64 
Neither, 295 
Neptune Party, A, 35 
Newspaper, 197-211 
No Longer a Dream, 222 
Nominations, 445 
Nominative case, 274, 292 
Notes in speaking, 100, 103, 104 
Notes, formal, 150 

Objective case, 275, 292 
Observation, 32, 33, 152 
Omissions, incorrect, 313 
Onomatopoeia, 269 
Order letter, 122, 123 
Outlining, 22, 28, 38, 56-60, 68, 104, 
227, 232, 234, 235 
Outlook, the, 51, 94 
Overheard at the Bargain Counter, 36 

Paper, 15, 122 
Parable, 431 

Paragraph, 42-55, 135; narration, 
25; newspaper, 206 
Parallel structure, 58, 326 
Paraphrasing, 249-252 
Parentheses, 362 
Parliamentary practice, 443, 458 
Parody, 215 

Part of speech, wrong, 311 
Participle, 285; dangling, 323 
Party or picnic, 35, 36 
Penmanship, 16-19 
Pentameter, 265 
Period, 354 
Period blunder, 289 
Periodic sentence, 339 
Personification, 431 
Persuasion, 172-174 
Phrases, 273 
Phrasing, 255 
Physics, 110 
Physiography, 110 
Pitch, 261 

Placing, voice, 439-441 


470 


INDEX 


Planning compositions and speeches, 
56-60, 64, 68, 104, 227 
Platform, on the, 101 
Play , 75 
Pleonasm, 337 

Point of view, description, 152; 

narration, 37 
Popular Mechanics, 84 
Possessive, use of, 276, 292; spelling 
of, 363, 417 
Postscripts, 122 
Posture, 98, 99, 440 
Precision, 68 
Prefixes, 375, 376, 421 
Preparedness and Peace, 169 
President, 447 

Principal parts of verbs, 300, 462- 
464 

Problems, American, 109 
Prolixity, 24, 331 

Pronouns, case, 292; and ante¬ 
cedents, 297, 332; compound 

personal and relative, 299 
Pronunciation, 392-416, 424 
Proof, methods of, 168, 186 
Proof reading, 239-244 
Proverbs, 95 
Publication, 197-244 
Punctuation, 354-369; open and 
close, 112, 114, 121 
Pupils’ compositions, 27, 28, 32, 35, 
36, 38, 48, 53, 54, 55, 62, 69, 72, 
74-78, 83, 85, 88, 89, 123, 125, 127, 
128, 131, 145, 146, 157, 158, 160, 

162, 164, 179, 184, 186, 191, 212, 

213, 216, 217, 218, 219, 220, 222, 

223, 225, 228, 235 

Purpose, composition, 56, 103, 168 
Pyrrhic, 265 

Qualities of a Gentleman, 76 
Quality, 261 
Quatrain, 270, 272 
Question mark, 360 
Questions for debate, 193-196 
Quotation marks, 361 


Rabbil-huntiny, 75 
Raise, rise, 301 
Rate, 261 
Reading, 248-263 
Red Cross Magazine, 53 
Redundance, syntactical, 312 
Refutation, 189-192 
Repetition, 59, 71 
Reproduction, 20-23, 102, 103 
Resonance, 261, 439-441 
Responsibility of Being a Perfect 
Baby, The, 218 
Revision, 61 
Rhyme, 269 
Ridicule, 214 
Rise, raise, 301 

Riverside Drive on a Sunday Morn¬ 
ing, 162 

Roaming through the West Indies, 51 
Roots, 376-379 
Rowing a Boat, 86 

Rules for Training for a Baseball 
Team, 77 

Sales letter, 135-140 
Salesmanship, 108 
Salutation of letter, 116, 144 
Sam Baker's Burglar, 38 
Satire, 214 

Saying what is meant, 317 
Scenes, 162 

School, 65; subjects, 70; assembly, 
107; paper, 211-224 
Scott’s Talisman, 22 
Scoville’s Everyday Adventures, 25 
Secretary, 449 
Semi Annuals, 220 
Semicolon, 359 

Sentence, 273-347; topic, 42; 
clincher, 43; loose, periodic, bal¬ 
anced. 339; newspaper, 206; 
variety, 338 
Set, sit, 301 

Shakespeare, 252, 258, 259 
Shall, will, 306 
Ship by Truck, 74 


INDEX 


471 


Shop Mascot, 213 

Short stories, list of, 23; practice 
in writing, 39, 40 
Should, would, 306 
Signature, 119 
Simile, 427-430 
Singsong, 257 
Sit, set, 301 
Slang, 380 
Snow Auto, A, 84 
So, overuse of, 99, 328 
Something to say, 4 
Sonnet, 271 
Sound,341 
Spacing, 118 

Speaking, extemporaneous, 97-111 
Spelling, 417-426 
Spenserian stanza, 271 
Spondee, 265 
Sports, 232, 233 
Sportsmanship, 222 
Stanza, 270 
Stems, 376-379 

Story telling. See Narration and 
Newspaper. 

Study Alone versus Study Together, 
69 

Subject, 103 
Suffixes, 421 
Sun, the, 201, 209 
Superlative degree, 308 
Syncopated Movies, 217 
Syntactical redundance, 312 
Syntax, 278-288, 364-369 

Taking care of something, 90-92 

Talisman, 22 

Tautology, 336 

Technical Game, The, 219 

Telephone conversation, 8-11 

Tense, 303, 304 

Terms, 93-95 

Tetrameter, 265 

That, who, which, 299 

Theater, 107 

Thoughts, how to get, 58, 103, 174 


Throatiness, 439, 441 
Time;'260 

Times, New York, 246 

Title of composition, how to write, 

15 

Titles, 116 
Today, 223 

Topics, conversation, 5 
Topic sentence, 42 
Tornado, A, 164 
Travelog, 106 
Treasurer, 449 
Trench Wrestle, 92 
Trimeter, 265 
Triplet, 270 
Trips, 33, 34 
Trochee, 264, 265 

United States, the, 63, 64 
Unity, sentence, 320; paragraph, 
43, 54, 55; composition, 61-63, 79 
Ur, 99 

Use, good, 379 

Vacuum Cleaner, 90 
Variety, in speaking, 100; in read¬ 
ing, 261; in verse, 266; sentence, 
338 

Verbal adjective and noun, 285 
Verbosity, 337 

Verbs, principal parts of, 300, 462- 
464; and subjects, 294; conju¬ 
gation, 459-461 
Verse, 264-272 

Visit to the Blue Grotto, Our, 33 
Vividness, 71, 105, 154, 158 
Vocabulary. See IT ords. 

Vocations, 227-232 
Voice, 3, 98, 437-442 
Vowels, 393, 394, 402-412 

Ways of the Circus, The, 51, 79 
Well, misuse of, 99 
What Is a Gink? 93 
Who, which, what, that, 299 
Why, misuse of, 99 

59311 32 


472 


INDEX 


Will, shall, 306 
Wit, 214-217 
With the City Fathers, 212 
Without, unless, 311 
Words, 370-391; pet, 6; omission 
of unnecessary, 24, 84, 105, 117, 
336; connective, 46; in explana¬ 
tion, 83; hackneyed, 118; de¬ 
scriptive, 154, 155; “journalese,” 


206; forceful, 105, 333; fre¬ 
quently misused, 380-391 
Wordsworth, William, 252 
World Is Too Much with Us, The, 252 
Would, should, 306 
Write-up, 198-208, 211-214, 216, 
219, 220 

“ You spirit,” 118 

Youth's Companion, the, 86, 87 





u a9 % o? 

<&. <4 ,WVo *\ & .* 


* ° *1 

a* v.'V v\ o 1 

* <L V rd* • 




lO v*. 

0 r » •* 
°-*. *».»’ A 0 ' 

-V £\ O « V * o. 

- A v ► 

* Vv CLV *•, 


A V <b 
'V * 



° ♦ * “ A <* -, . 

I I vi v ..»., •“ 

: *fe # : 


' T> 

v , 1 ^ o^ 

, V1 , W „, j. 0 -^. '^Q^mS; <a °t, 

%. ••„.• ^o- ^ *rr;.’ 

, - C\. «0* « * * o» «\ . \ • « * * 

^ «*& *V Sfe> *■ %? 5 » « ^ „ V * s 

W »*- %g :£Mk°° ' 



V . * 



6 

■* v„ •VW , <y > * 

^ *o * A * ^ 

i. * ^JJT * "o ^ * c o *«* ’*b 

- &:i\l//yy> * ... . n 

^o K ° 

ip vS 

k ~ ^ 

mo’ _,<r ^ .<?> 






A? *$* 
<& 




^ ' • * * V " O . * 

-0^ * 1 ' * ♦ 

c ♦W22*>y o j' 

«. sell//y^b> ■-» \ n 

* -■ *o ^ 

h * ^M£^v) • 

—* «• w* Ji. vw q 


* 


^•d* 



j. 0 -^ 


<; 


* * o. 


• ^ ^ * 

: ^ 9 s 


**•;-.» .o- ^ '•TT,**' «*■'’ °o '. 

o.^ vki'. ^ ^ ^ V „vlV’> O. .0^ . 

w /, ' " ’ 

J ^ 0 a . a 

* 4? oK/0S\Yr* b. •- J 

^ v > • 

♦iV ® * *" *A •<*■ + 

* *ao< *^0i- V ^ 




-. O • A 

l' S 'b o M 0 ^ 

°o j* ^ 

; ”0 ^ 

•■•• f°° °o *% 

^ .v v 


..., '<• “■»• A 0 ' '< 

°o ^..a^ ydfei;'. ^ .y° .v4>*y>. 





- -v ® ^, av k 1 * 

O * X-C^v + *P **0 <, * - -» 

’ -o / : — 




•K -*. 




* aK - ' 



> . 

_ » 

X O. 

^ ^ <* 

y & \ 

°*u * °«° * y* ^ *»!■*• Y»- 

t M 0< -> v \* , 

^ X V f ^ ^ \ ^ Jj 

: W :MM\ \y 

v* ^ V % >Ss * A^-V 

y y <■'*£?* >o o y • ° - ° * 



>°%. . 



O A^ ♦ 

vrV 

* y \. °“ 

-V <L V * 

t <6^ f 

^ Cr ^Ln^-r o 


<>** ■_ _ 
j *.* ^ ^ • ©US? * ^ ^ 

•* v^*‘ 


vx. 


*0**M>>„ 


o v 



o ,0 X . 

W*-' 0 \ • 

■ »’ / V * 

J MAY-JUNE1988 L ^ .'M^ .* 



^f»VATlO^ 






v ^ °A. 

,' / <A ', „ . 

A •<• *•*•’ 

> *»•/ V- 

«* V^A a" 

. vx. 




